COLUMBIA  LIBRARIES  OFFSITE 

HEALTH  SCIENCES  STANDARD 


HX64075338 
RA776  L49  Personal  hygiene,  ed 


RECAP 


"-'■ 


M35k 


M? 


Colum&ta  Wlnibmity 

g>c&ool  of  Cental  anb  0tal  burger? 


Reference  Hibvavp 


ir.  _.,v-«     A,  _,*- 


ternts^iillyiiifA'wtimi: 


THE  LIBRARY 


OF 


HOME  ECONOMICS 


A  COMPLETE  HOME-STUDY  COURSE 

ON   THE    NEW  PROFESSION    OF    HOME-MAKING  AND  ART  OF  RIGHT  LIVING  ; 

THE  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  MOST  RECENT  ADVANCES 

IN  THE  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES  TO    HOME  AND    HEALTH 


PREPARED  BY  TEACHERS  OF 
RECOGNIZED  AUTHORITY 

FOR  HOME-MAKERS,  MOTHERS,  TEACHERS,  PHYSICIANS,  NURSES,    DIETITIANS, 

PROFESSIONAL  HOUSE   MANAGERS,  AND  ALL    INTERESTED 

IN  HOME,  HEALTH,  ECONOMY  AND  CHILDREN 

TWELVE  VOLUMES 

NEARLY  THREE  THOUSAND  PAGES,  ONE  THOUSAND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

TESTED  BY  USE  IN  CORRESPONDENCE  INSTRUCTION 

REVISED  AND    SUPPLEMENTED 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  HOME  ECONOMICS 

1907 


Copyright,  1907 

BY 

Home  Economics  Association 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  Rights  Reserved. 


AUTHORS 


ISABEL  BEVIER,   Ph.  M. 


Professor  of  Household  Science,  University  of  Illinois.  Author  U.  S. 
Government  Bulletins,  "  Development  of  the  Home  Economics 
Movement  in  America,"  etc. 

ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON,  M.  A. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Home  Economics,  School  of  Education,  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  ;  Director  of  the  Chautauqua  School  of  Domestic 
Science. 

S.  MARIA  ELLIOTT 

Instructor  in  Home  Economics,  Simmons  College;  Formerly  Instruc- 
tor School  of  Housekeeping,  Boston. 

ANNA  BARROWS 

Director  Chautauqua  School  of  Cookery  ;  Lecturer  Teachers'  College, 
Columbia  University,  and  Simmons  College  ;  formerly  Editor  "Ameri- 
can Kitchen  Magazine;"  Author  "  Home  Science  Cook  Book." 

ALFRED  CLEVELAND  COTTON,  A.  M.,  M.  D. 

Professor  Diseases  of  Children,  Rush  Medical  College,  University  of 
Chicago  ;  Visiting  Physician  Presbyterian  Hospital,  Chicago;  Author 
of  "  Diseases  of  Children." 

BERTHA  M.  TERRILL,  A.  B. 

Professor  in  Home  Economics  in  Hartford  School  of  Pedagogy; 
Author  of  U.  S.  Government  Bulletins. 

KATE  HEINTZ  WATSON 

Formerly  Instructor  in  Domestic  Economy,  Lewis  Institute ;  Lecturer 
University  of  Chicago. 

MARION  FOSTER  WASHBURNE 

Editor  "The  Mothers'  Magazine;"  Lecturer  Chicago  Froebel  Asso- 
ciation; Author  "  Everyday  Essays,"  "Family  Secrets,"  etc. 

MARGARET  E.  DODD 

Graduate  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  ;  Teacher  of  Science, 
Woodward  Institute. 

AMY  ELIZABETH  POPE 

With  the  Panama  Canal  Commission  ;  Formerly  Instructor  in  Practical 
and  Theoretical  Nursing,  Training  School  for  Nurses,  Presbyterian 
Hospital,  New  York  City. 

MAURICE  LE  BOSQUET,   S.  B. 

Director  American  School  of  Home  Economics ;  Member  American 
Public  Health  Association  and  American  Chemical  Society. 


CONTRIBUTORS  AND  EDITORS 

ELLEN  H.   RICHARDS 

Author  "  Cost  of  Food,"  "  Cost  of  Living,"  "  Cost  of  Shelter,"  "  Food 
Materials  and  Their  Adulteration,"  etc.,  etc.;  Chairman  Lake  Placid 
Conference  on  Home  Economics. 

MARY  HINMAN  ABEL 

Author  of  U.  S.  Government  Bulletins,  "  Practical  Sanitary  and  Econ- 
omic Cooking,"  "Safe  Food,"  etc. 

THOMAS  D.  WOOD,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Physical  Education,  Columbia  University. 

H.  M.  LUFKIN,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Physical  Diagnosis  and  Clinical  Medicine,  University  of 
Minnesota. 

OTTO  FOLIN,  Ph.  D. 

Special  Investigator,  McLean  Hospital,  Waverly,  Mass. 

T.  MITCHELL  PRUDDEN,  M.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Author  "Dust  and  Its  Dangers  "  "The  Story  of  the  Bacteria,"  "Drink- 
ing Water  and  Ice  Supplies,"  etc. 

FRANK  CHOUTEAU  BROWN 

Architect,  Boston,  Mass.;  Author  of  "The  Five  Orders  of  Architec- 
ture," "  Letters  and  Lettering." 

MRS.    MELVIL  DEWEY 

Secretary  Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Home  Economics. 

HELEN  LOUISE  JOHNSON 

Professor  of  Home  Economics,  JamesMillikan  University,  Decatur. 

FRANK  W.  ALLIN,  M.  D, 

Instructor  Rush  Medical  College,  University  of  Chicago. 


MANAGING  EDITOR 

MAURICE  LE  BOSQUET,  S.  B. 

Director  American  School  of  Home  Economics. 


BOARD  OF  TRUSTEES 

OF  THE  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  HOME  ECONOMICS 


MRS.  ARTHUR  COURTENAY  NEVILLE 

President  of  the  Board. 

MISS  MARIA  PARLOA 

Founder  of  the  first  Cooking  School  in  Boston;  Author  of  "Home 
Economics,"  "  Young  Housekeeper,"  U.  S.  Government  Bulletins,  etc. 

MRS.  MARY  HINMAN  ABEL 

Co-worker  in  the  "New  England  Kitchen,"  and  the  "Rumford  Food 
Laboratory,"  Author  of  U.  S.  Government  Bulletins,  "  Practical 
Sanitary  and  Economic  Cooking,"  etc. 

MISS  ALICE  RAVENHILL 

Special  Commissioner  sent  by  the  British  Government  to  report  on  the 
Schools  of  Home  Economics  in  the  United  States;  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Sanitary  Institute,  London. 

MRS.  ELLEN  M.  HENROTIN 

Honorary  President  General  Federation  of  Woman's  Clubs. 

MRS.  FREDERIC  W.  SCHOFF 

President  National  Congress  of  Mothers. 

MRS.  LINDA  HULL  LARNED 

Past  President  National  Household  Economics  Association ;  Author 
of  "  Hostess  of  To-day." 

MRS.  WALTER  McNAB  MILLER 

Chairman  of  the  Pure  Food  Committee  of  the  General  Federation  of 
Woman's  Clubs. 

MRS.  J.  A.  KIMBERLY 

Vice  President  of  National  Household  Economics  Association. 

MRS.  JOHN  HOODLESS 

Government  Superintendent  of  Domestic  Science  for  the  province  of 
Ontario;  Founder  Ontario  Normal  School  of  Domestic  Science,  now 
the  MacDonald  Institute. 


VENUS  DE   M1L0 


Personal  Hygiene 


EDITED  BY 

MAURICE  LE  BOSQUET,  S.  B. 

DIRECTOR  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  HOME  ECONOMICS 
MEMBER  AMERICAN  PUBLIC  HEALTH  ASSOCIATION 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN  SCHOOL  OF  HOME  ECONOMICS 

IQ07 


Copyright,  1907 

BY 

Home  Economics  Association 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  Rights  Reserved. 


Ui 


CONTENTS 


Letter  to  Students    . 

Precepts  for  Right  Living,  by  Ellen  H.  Richards 

Introduction 

The  Human  Machine 

Structure  of  the  Body 

The  Bones 

The  Muscles 

The  Nervous  System 

The  Skin  and  Connections 

The  Sense  Organs 

The  Sense  of  Sight     . 

The  Sense  of  Hearing    . 

Running  the  Machine 

Digestion  of  Food  . 

The  Blood  .... 

The  Circulation 

Respiration 

Nutrition 

Temperature  Regulation    . 

Elimination 

Care  of  the  Machine 

Hygiene  of  the  Nervous  System 

Hygiene  of  Feeding    . 

Care  of  the  Teeth  ..... 

When,  How  Much,  and  What  to  Eat 
Drink       ....... 

Hygiene  of  the  Skin  and  Its  Modifications 
Baths       ....... 

Care  of  the  Hair        ..... 

Care  of  the  Complexion 

ill 


VI 

viii 
i 
5 

12 

is 
19 
24 
29 

33 
39 
47 
Si 
66 
68 

75 
81 

94 
98 

i°5 
106 

114 
114 
121 
i35 
i37 
138 
141 
145 


iv  CONTENTS 

Care  of  the  Mucous  Membrance — Colds     .         ..  149 

Hygiene  of  Clothing       .....  153 

Shoes  .........  158 

Physical  Exercise             .....  161 

Ethics  of  H::alth,  by  Thomas  D.  Wood,  M.  D.       .  191 

The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Drugs,  by  H.  M.  Lufkin,  M.  D.  202 

Public  Health  in  the  United  States          .          .  216 
Plea  for   a  National  Department  of   Health, 

J.  Pease  Norton,  Ph.  D.  .          .          .          .          .  222 

Program  for  Supplemental  Study       .         .         .225 

Index       .         .         .          .         .                   .         .  229 


EDITOR'S  NOTE 


Arrangements  were  originally  made  to  have  this  series  of 
lessons  on  Personal  Hygiene  prepared  by  Professor  Thomas 
D.  Wood  of  Columbia  University.  An  operation  for  appen- 
dicitis, resulting  seriously,  compelled  him  to  abandon  all 
work  for  nearly  two  years,  consequently  the  preparation  of 
the  lessons  was  turned  over  to  his  co-worker,  Dr.  George  L. 
Meylan,  whose  manuscript  followed  after  some  time.  Mean- 
while, the  whole  course  had  developed  in  length,  breadth, 
and  depth  and  the  work  on  Personal  Hygiene  was  found  to 
be  too  elementary  and  not  to  fit  into  its  particular  niche  in 
the  enlarged  scheme.  As  Dr.  Meylan  could  not  give  the 
time  for  revision,  he  asked  to  be  released  from  further 
responsibility  of  authorship. 

After  endeavoring  in  vain  to  induce  half  a  dozen  others  to 
write  the  book  in  the  time  set,  the  editor  was  compelled  to 
undertake  the  difficult  task  himself,  with  such  assistance  as 
could  be  obtained.  Dr.  Meylan's  material  has  been  drawn 
upon,  especially  in  Part  I,  but  the  subject-matter  has  been 
rearranged  and  for  the  most  part  rewritten.  All  the  up-to_ 
date  books  on  the  subject — a  meager  list — have  been  con- 
sulted, and  ideas  borrowed  freely. 

For  the  latest  facts  in  physiology  I  have  depended  mainly 
on  A  Text-Book  of  Physiology  by  Professor  William  H.  Howell 
of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Recent  Advances  in  Phys- 
iology and  Bio-chemistry,  edited  by  Leonard  Hill,  Pawlow's 
classic  book,  The  Work  of  the  Digestive  Glands,  and  the 
ately  published  college  text-book,  The  Human  Mechanism, 
by  Professors  Hough  and  Sedgwick. 

I  wish  to  make  grateful  acknowledgment  for  help  and 
suggestions  given  by  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  and  Miss  S. 
Maria  Elliott,  to  Miss  Helen  Louise  Johnson  for  assistance 
in  editorial  work,  and  to  Dr.  Frank  W.  Allin  of  Rush  Medical 
College  for  checking  the  technical  statements  in  the  text. 
Chicago,  December,  1906. 


AMERICAN   SCHOOL  OP   HOME    ECONOMICS 

3323       ARMOUR      AVENUg 

CHICAGO 

January  1,  1907. 

Dear  Madam : 

As  the  lessons  on  Personal  Hy- 
giene have  been  so  long  delayed,  many  of  our 
students  have  about  completed  their  courses. 
Nearly  all  the  letters  received  giving  the 
reason  for  slow  progress  speak  of  personal 
ill  health  or  sickness  in  the  family,  and  I 
realize  now  more  clearly  than  ever  before 
that  these  lessons  should  form  the  keystone 
in  the  arch  of  health  which  we  are  trying 
to  build  with  our  course. 

I  undertook  the  preparation  of  these 
lessons  with  full  recognition  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  subject.   If  I  might  have  had 
two  years  instead  of  two  months  to  write 
them,  the  result  might  have  been  more  satis- 
factory to  me.   The  words  to  carry  convic- 
tion and  compel  action  are  hard  to  find. 

Personal  health  is  so  necessary, -few 
things  are  worth  while  without  it..  It  is 
above  price  and  cannot  be  bought  with  money — 
it  must  be  worked  for  like  nearly  everything 
else  worth  having.   Its  value  is  hard  to  re- 
alize until  lost  and  then  it  maybe  too  late. 
The  tragedies,  the  sorrows,  the  heart  aches 
that  come  from  lack  of  knowledge  and  lack  of 
self  control  in  the  matters  of  health  are 
beyond  reckoning. 


I  hope  these  lessons  may  be  only  the 
beginning  of  your  study  of  personal  health. 
Follow  the  "Supplemental  Program"  if  possible. 
In  problems  of  health  the  application  of 
principles  must  always  be  a  most  personal 
one.   Of  course  here  as  elsewhere  it  is  a 
mistake  to  look  for  trouble-  to  expect  things 
to  go  wrong.   The  hypochondriac  never  fails 
to  find  looked  for  ills,   fe  must  live  in 
faith.  Nature  takes  wonderful  care  of  us 
if  we  will  only  give  her  co  operation. 

Put  yourself  into  your  answers  and 
give  expression  to  your  own  ideas.  Ask  ques- 
tions freely  and  so  allow  me  to  supplement 
the  lessons.   I  may  not  be  able  to  answer 
all  your  questions  but  perhaps  can  give  a 
little  more  help.   Of  course  advice  in 
cases  of  illness  cannot  be  given  at  "pen 
and  ink  distance." 

Sincerely  yours, 

Instructor 


Right   Living 

Live  to  accomplish    something — not  merely  to  exist. 

To  live  means  to  eat,  to  -work,  to  sleep,  to  be  amused 
and  refreshed  after  -work. 

Eat  for  satisfying  legitimate  Lunger  of  the  body  cells 
— not  only  to  please  the  palate. 

Sleep  for  restoration  of  energy — see  to  it  that  such 
is  the  result. 

Exercise  is  as  essential  as  sleep — learn  what  and  how 
much  shakes  out  the  dead  ashes  from  the  living 
coals. 

Life  processes  go  on  best  unwatched.  "All  the  world's 
a  stage    — enjoy  the  play. 

Live  for  a  worthy  purpose — some  incentive,  some  goal 
to  reach  keeps  the  traveller  on  the  safe  road. 

Adapt  habits  to  environments,  control  surroundings 
as  far  as  possible  to  the  great  end — -effective  life. 

Educate  the  young  from  the  first  to  value  life  and 
health,  to  find  happiness  in  right  living. 

Above    all,    believe   that  it  pays  to  know  the  truth 
and  to  follow  it. 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


LJYGIENE  is  the  technical  application  of  biology  Definition 
•*■  and  physiology  to  the  problem  of  health.  The 
old  dictionary  definition  of  Hygiene,  which  stated  it  to 
be  "that  which  has  to  do  with  the  preservation  and 
restoration  of  health"  has  of  later  years  given  way  to 
a  higher  ideal,  and  we  may  define  it  now  as  "that 
which  has  to  do  with  the  preservation  and  improve- 
ment of  health." 

Most  people  consider  themselves  well  as  long  as 
they  are  not  ill  and  do  not  consciously  endeavor  to  bet- 
ter their  physical  condition,  but  those  who  have  inter- 
preted anew  the  definition  of  hygiene  seek  the  higher 
ideal. 

A  most  important  factor  in  the  study  of  health  is     value  of 
an  appreciation  of  the  value  of  health.     This  means 
much  more  than  merely  to  wish  one's  self  well.     It 
involves  a  realization  that  the  first  and  most  important 
duty  is  to  be  well. 

The  second  factor  is  the  willingness  to  do  anything 
that  is  necessary  to  acquire  ideal  health.  Many  are 
willing  to  be  patient,  to  take  time,  money  and  trouble 
to  regain  the  blessing  of  health  once  lost;  few  are 
found  willing  to  do  all  this  to  attain  a  higher  standard. 


Economy  of 
Health 


Personal 

Responsibility 

for  Health 


2  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

The  third  factor  is  in  a  measure  involved  in  the  sec- 
ond, but  needs  to  be  stated  more  forcibly.  It  is  the 
realization  that  the  time  and  strength  and  money  used 
for  the  improvement  of  health  are  not  taken  from 
greater  or  more  necessary  things,  but  that  health  is  a 
fundamental  necessity.  Some  do  accomplish  much  in 
spite  of  physical  limitations  and  many  who  seem  to  be 
fine  physically  have  never  achieved  greatness  elsewhere. 
But  it  remains  that  to  do  one's  best  it  is  necessary  to  be 
one's  best. 

Finally  the  personal  responsibility  for  health  should 
be  appreciated.  Health  is  the  natural  condition  of  the 
body.  The  organism  is  constantly  endeavoring  to 
maintain  itself  in  this  normal  state  and  it  is  only  when 
conditions  are  so  unfavorable  that  the  body  cannot  ad- 
just itself  to  them  that  illness  results  and  the  organism 
demands  rest  for  recuperation. 

Statistics  show  that  only  ten  per  cent  of  mankind 
die  from  natural  causes, — the  wearing  out  of  the  ma- 
chine through  old  age.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  poor 
health  and  illness  result  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  from 
ignorance,  carelessness,  or  intemperance  of  some  kind. 

Most  people  have  certain  notions  and  theories  as  to 
the  requirements  for  personal  health,  but  very  few 
have  studied  the  subject  systematically  in  the  light  of 
present-day  scientific  developments.  Knowledge  of 
personal  hygiene  is  not  yet  considered  an  essential  part 
of  a  liberal  education. 

Few  people  live  up  to  the  knowledge  that  they  have 


INTRODUCTION 


of  healthful  living,  but  a  falling  short  of  ideals  is  com- 
mon in  all  lines  of  human  endeavor.  What  is  needed 
is  greater  knowledge  and  higher  ideals. 

Much  illness  results  from  carelessness,  for  all  con- 
tagious or  infectious  diseases  (communicable  dis- 
eases) are  preventable.  As  far  as  known,  each  case 
comes  from  some  previous  case,  near  or  remote,  so 
that  all  such  illness  may  be  attributed  to  carelessness 
and  ignorance,  chiefly  perhaps  of  those  who  are  ill  or 
their  attendants,  but  often  through  lack  of  ordinary 
precaution  on  the  part  of  those  contracting  communi- 
cable disease.  The  body  in  perfect  health  is  a 
fortress  against  the  invasion  of  the  germs  of  disease, 
but  some  seemingly  trivial  weakness  may  give  the 
germs  the  chance  to  develop  and  affect  their  dread 
results. 

Intemperance  has  many  forms  besides  the  over  in- 
dulgence in  alcoholic  liquors.  Intemperance  in  eating 
is  probably  as  common  and  nearly  as  disastrous.  We 
may  be  intemperate  in  work  as  in  play. 

The  individual  "strength  of  constitution"  so  called, 
differs  greatly,  it  is  true.  Each  one  has  his  personal 
limitations  and  these  should  be  studied,  but  a  certain 
measure  of  health  is  possible  for  everyone  who  is  will- 
ing to  work  for  it,  unless  the  attempt  is  made  too  late. 
Through  childhood  the  mother  is  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  health  of  the  child,  after  which  each  individual 
is  alone  responsible  for  maintaining  the  degree  of 
health  that  he  has  and  improving  upon  it.    That  a  poor 


Preventable 
Diseases 


Intemperance 


Personal 
Limitations 


Happiness 


4  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

constitution  may  be  improved  greatly  and  oftentimes 
developed  into  a  vigorous  one  has  been  proved  repeat- 
edly. A  notable  example  is  that  of  President  Roose- 
velt who  when  a  youth  was  unpromising  physically. 
Health  and  But  as  man  is  more  than  animal  and  has  a  mental 
and  spiritual  life  as  well  as  a  physical  life,  these  must 
be  considered  in  any  study  of  right  living.  As  there 
can  be  no  perfect  happiness  without  physical  health, 
so  there  can  be  no  perfect  physical  health  without  the 
mental  and  spiritual  health  which  gives  happiness,  and 
further,  this  higher  health  depends  upon  a  true  phil- 
osophy of  life,  a  proper  adjustment  between  work  and 
recreation,  some  purpose  in  living,  service,  ideals. 

The  problem  of  right  living  is  always  one  of  ad- 
justment and  it  is  necessary  to  know  as  much  about 
the  body  as  possible  to  make  the  most  perfect  adjust- 
ment to  the  ever-increasing  complexity  of  modern  life. 

In  this  series  of  lessons  we  shall  study  something  of 
(i)  The  Human  Machine,  (2)  The  Running  of  the 
Machine,  and  (3)    Care  of  the  Machine. 


THE  HUMAN  MACHINE 


The  human  body  is  a  living  machine  in  that  the 
function  of  a  machine  is  simply  to  convert  one  kind 
of  energy  into  another.  This  is  precisely  what  the 
body  does.  Biology  is  concerned  with  the  origin  of 
this  machine,  physiology  with  the  running  of  it. 

The  facts  discovered  in  connection  with  the  organic 
cell  and  protoplasm  seem  to  hold  the  key  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  life  phenomena.  Life  itself  is  inex- 
plicable. Yet  what  we  believe  to  be  true  of  the  origin 
of  the  living  machine  assists  us  in  the  difficult  task 
of  properly  adjusting  this  organism  to  its  environ- 
ment. 

If  we  compare  a  dead  body  with  a  living  one,  we 
find  the  form  the  same,  the  weight  the  same;  if  we 
analyze  them  chemically,  we  still  find  them  the  same. 
Yet  we  know  there  is  an  essential  difference  between 
the  two  and  that  difference  is  given  by  a  wonderful 
something  called  life.  A  living  body  has  the  property 
of  movement,  takes  in  food  and  builds  it  into  living 
tissue,  reacts  to  its  surroundings,  maintains  an  even 
temperature,  reproduces  itself,  and  finally  dies. 

All  living  things  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
forms  are  called  organisms.  One  of  the  lowest  forms 
of  animal  life  is  a  little  body  found  in  muddy  water, 
called  the  amoeba.  This  small  organism  is  barely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  if  looked  at  under  the 
microscope  appears  like  a  tiny  round  mass  of  jelly. 


Nature  of 
Life 


Organisms 


6  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

But  this  very  small  body  moves  about,  takes  in  food, 
changes  that  food  into  living  substance,  and  grows ; 
it  responds  if  irritated ;  it  reproduces  itself,  and  finally 
it  dies.  This  tiny  mass,  therefore,  has  all  the  proper- 
ties of  a  living  organism. 


Unit 
Cells 


THE  AMOEBA,  A  TYPE  OF  A  UNICELLULAR  ORGANISM 

If  we  cut  the  amoeba  into  several  pieces,  we  find  that 
each  part  is  like  every  other  part.  This  represents 
the  simplest  possible  living  thing  capable  of  an  inde- 
pendent existence.  It  is  a  single  cell.  The  study  of 
the  amoeba  is  interesting  because  the  human  body  is 
developed  from  a  single  cell  called  an  ovum  which  is 
very  similar  to  the  amoeba.  The  process  of  develop- 
ment may  be  divided  into  three  stages. 
Development  ^n  the  first  stage  the  ovum  or  cell  divides  into  two 

ovum  cells  and  each  again  divides  into,,  two  until  there  are 
many  cells  all  alike,  which  are  held  together  and  form 
a  mass  something  like  the  little  round  parts  making  up 
a  raspberry.  Up  to  this  point  each  cell  is  like  every 
other  cell. 

The  change  that  takes  place  in  the  second  stage  has 
been  likened  to  the  transformation  of  a  savage  into  a 
civilized  man.  The  savage  lives  an  independent  life; 
he  procures  his  own  food,  makes  his  clothes,  builds 
his  hut,  and  fights  his  own  battles.    Little  by  little,  one 


THE  HUMAN  MACHINE  7 

man  finds  that  he  can  build  huts  better  than  other 
men  and  he  builds  a  hut  for  another  man  who  is  a 
successful  hunter,  and  exchanges  the  hut  for  food. 
In  the  same  way  one  man  is  very  skillful  in  making 
clothes  and  he  makes  the  clothes  for  a  man  who  makes 
very  good  tools.  Gradually  differentiation  of  labor 
takes  place ;  that  is,  one  man  learns  to  do  one  thing 
well  and  does  that  only,  while  other  men  do  the 
things  for  which  they  are  best  fitted. 

A  condition  very  similar  to  this  division  of  labor 
takes  place  in  the  second  and  third  stages  of  the  de- 


BODY  CELLS. 

A,  Muscle  Cells;   B,  Liver  Cells;  C,  White  Corpuscles;   D,  Ciliated  Cells; 

E,  Nerve  Centers  or  Cells. 


Differentiation 
of  Labor 


velopment  of  the  full  grown  man  from  the  mass  of 
similar  cells.  At  the  first  stage,  each  cell  is  like  the 
savage  who  does  everything  for  himself.  As  the  cells 
grow  and  multiply  they  begin  to  show  some  differences 
and  the  end  of  the  second  stage  shows  three  distinct 
kinds  of  cells  which  may  be  denoted  as  the  outside, 
middle,  and  inside  cells. 


8  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

During  the  third  stage  the  process  of  division  of 
labor  by  differentiation  of  cells  continues  and  there  is 
developed  gradually  the  final  specialized  cells,  each 
having  some  particular  work  or  function  to  perform. 
Some  are  bone  cells,  some  are  muscle  cells,  others  liver 
cells,  nerve  cells, — every  kind  of  cell  necessary  to  a 
complete  organism. 
The  organs  A  group  of  one  kind  of  cells  doing  the  same  work 
is  called  an  organ,  and  the  body  is  composed  of  various 
organs.  The  heart,  the  stomach,  the  lungs,  the  muscles, 
and  the  brain  are  all  organs,  each  having  its  partic- 
ular and  definite  work  to  do  in  maintaining  life. 

Returning  now  to  the  comparison  of  the  human 
body  to  the  conditions  of  modern  civilization, — we 
know  that  with  the  far-reaching  specialization  of  the 
various  occupations,  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  the 
people  depend  on  each  class  of  workers  doing  its 
share.  When  there  is  a  great  strike,  as  for  instance, 
when  all  coal  miners  stop  working,  homes  and  fac- 
tories which  must  have  coal  for  fuel  are  much  dis- 
turbed and  suffer  greatly.  In  the  same  way,  if  all 
the  bakers  or  butchers  go  on  strike,  much  trouble  and 
distress  is  caused  to  society, 
inter-relation  Similar  conditions  exist  in  the  human  body.     Each 

organs  organ  has  a  particular  work  to  do  and  the  well-being 
of  the  body  as  a  whole  depends  upon  the  proper  work- 
ing of  each  and  all  the  organs.  When  all  do  their 
work  well,  we  have  in  the  body  the  condition  known 
as  health.     When  some  of  the  organs  are  impaired 


THE  HUMAN  MACHINE 


and  their  work  is  poorly  done,  we  have  the  condition 
known  as  disease.  It  is  essential,  then,  to  know  the 
principles  underlying  the  proper  working  of  all  the 
organs  in  order  that  we  may  keep  them  in  a  condi- 
tion favorable  to  the  body  as  a  whole. 

The  health  and  efficiency  of  the  various  cells  depend 
on  (i)  proper  nourishment,  (2)  functional  activity, 
and  (3)  free  discharge  of  waste  matter.  All  the  organs 
and  functions  of  the  body  have  a  share  in  supplying 
these  conditions.  The  organs  of  digestion  and  respira- 
tion supply  the  body  with  nourishment;  the  organs  of 
elimination  carry  off  waste  matter ;  the  muscles  furnish 
the  necessary  functional  activity ;  the  blood  serves  as 
a  vehicle  for  nourishment  and  waste  matter,  and  all 
the  organs  are  governed  by  the  nervous  system. 

We  have  seen  that  if  any  of  these  organs  performs 
its  work  inadequately,  the  condition  of  health  is  im- 
possible. The  reason  that  so  many  people  are  in  the 
condition  of  imperfect  health  is  that  the  human  body 
depends  for  its  health  on  its  environment;  that  the 
environment  best  suited  to  its  needs  is  one  of  simple 
active  outdoor  life,  and  that  civilization  has  so  modi- 
fied man's  environment  that  his  life  is  complex,  seden- 
tary and  indoors.  These  conditions  are  unfavorable 
to  perfect  health. 

It  has  taken  thousands  of  years  of  evolution  to  de- 
velop the  human  organism  to  its  present  state — its 
adaptation  to  an  active  outdoor  life,  but  in  the  last 
hundred  years  civilization  has  brought  about  such  rad- 


Health  of 
the  Cells 


Health  of 
the  Body 


Evolution  of 
the  Body 


io  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

ical  changes  in  man's  environment  that  it  is  at  present 
difficult  for  his  body  to  adapt  itself  to  the  new  de- 
mands. The  marked  decrease  in  the  amount  of  muscu- 
lar exercise,  the  enormous  changes  in  shelter  and  food, 
the  great  increase  in  nervous  activity,  necessitate  great 
modifications  in  the  various  functions  of  the  body. 
That  most  of  the  functional  disorders  common  to  our 
city  population  would  be  easily  remedied  by  a  change 
to  a  simple,  active,  outdoor  life,  is  shown  by  the 
marked  improvement  in  health  which  takes  place  when 
a  man  or  woman  spends  a  summer  camping  out. 
Degrees  of  From  the  standpoint  of  health,  people  may  be  di- 
iy  vided  into  three  classes.  In  the  first  class  are  those 
who  possess  a  large  amount  of  vitality  or  resistance 
to  disease.  They  maintain  good  health  under  all  cir- 
cumstances— hard  work  and  unhygienic  surroundings 
have  no  apparent  effect  upon  them. 

In  the  second  class  are  those  who  are  well  and  strong 
when  living  under  favorable  conditions  of  work,  air, 
food,  exercise  and  rest,  but  who  fall  ready  victims  to 
epidemics  and  easily  affected  by  adverse  conditions. 

The  third  class,  small  in  number,  includes  all  persons 
having  inherited  or  acquired  weakness  who  are  in- 
capable of  a  high  degree  of  health,  even  when  sur- 
rounded by  the  most  favorable  conditions. 

Most  people  belong  to  the  second  class.  They  thrive 
when  the  environment  is  favorable,  but  are  easily  af- 
fected by  bad  air,  poor  food,  overwork,  and  other  ex- 
ternal circumstances. 


THE  HUMAN  MACHINE 


ii 


Health,  then,  may  be  said  to  depend  on  two  main 
factors,  (i)  the  strength,  vitality  or  constitution  of 
the  individual,  and  (2)  the  environment  in  which  the 
individual  is  placed. 

A  natural  question  is :  What  is  constitution  and 
how  may  it  be  improved?  The  constitution  or  vital- 
ity of  an  adult  depends  on  two  things,  heredity  and 
nurture.  It  is  a  common  law  of  nature  that  children  of 
healthy  parents  are  much  more  likely  to  be  strong  and 
vigorous  than  the  children  of  weak,  sickly  parents.  It 
has  also  been  demonstrated  that  children  brought  up 
under  favorable  conditions  of  air,  food,  bathing,  ex- 
ercise, rest  and  play,  are  likely  to  grow  up  healthy  and 
vigorous  even  with  poor  inheritance. 

Health  also  depends  on  the  immediate  influence  of 
environment.  A  man  or  woman  who  has  inherited 
a  vigorous  constitution  from  his  parents  and  has  been 
brought  up  under  favorable  conditions  of  life,  may 
ruin  his  health  in  a  short  time  by  exposing  himself  to 
an  unhealthy  climate,  overwork,  bad  air,  poor  food, 
filth,  worry  or  dissipation. 

In  these  lessons  we  shall  study  the  important  func- 
tions of  the  body  and  the  conditions  most  favorable  to 
them.  In  all  this  we  should  keep  in  mind  that  in  our 
attempt  to  enhance  the  influences  which  improve  the 
health,  we  are  not  studying  simply  to  increase  the 
efficiency,  usefulness  and  happiness  of  the  Individual 
but  we  are  building  permanently  by  increasing  the 
vitality  of  the  fathers  and  mothers  of  future  genera- 
tions. 


Factors  in 
Health 


Environment 
and  Care 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  BODY 

The  many  dissimilar  parts  of  the  body,  such  as 
bones,  muscles,  nerves,  lungs,  etc.,  upon  close  exami- 
nation may  be  resolved  into  the  elementary  structure 
called  tissues.  The  body,  then,  is  composed  of  solid 
tissues  and  fluids. 
Tissues  Microscopical  examination  of  any  tissue  shows  that 
it  is  Gomposed  of  the  living  physiological  units  called 
cells  and  the  cells  of  any  tissue  are  similar  in  structure 
and  function.  These  are  the  fundamental  structural 
elements,  and  it  is  by  the  combination  and  transforma- 
tion of  these,  and  material  derived  from  them,  that  all 
the  tissues,  seemingly  so  different,  are  formed  which 
make  up  the  structure  of  the  human  body. 

The  bones  which  give  the  fixed  figure  and  form  as 
well  as  support  to  other  organs;  the  ligaments  and 
cartilage  connecting  the  bones  ;  the  muscles  which  make 
motion  possible ;  the  organs  of  nutrition,  secretion  and 
excretion ;  the  nervous  tissue,  and  that  composing  the 
organs  of  the  special  senses,  are  primarily  made  up  of 
cellular  tissue  corresponding  to  the  frame-work  of  any 
Luilding  with  its  intricate  steel,  brick,  mortar  and  board 
formation. 
Fluids  The  fluids  are  intimately  connected  with  the  life  of 
the  structure.  If  they  become  stagnant  or  contami- 
nated, trouble  ensues.  Upon  their  purity  and  renewal 
life  depends.  These  fluids  are  the  blood  or  circulating 
medium ;  the  fluids  connected  with  the  process  of  assim- 


BONES 


13 


ilation  such  as  lymph;  the  digestive  juices,  as  saliva, 
the  gastric,  pancreatic;  and  the  excretory  fluids. 

For  purposes  of  classification  the  body  may  be  sep- 
arated into  head,  trunk  and  limbs.  The  head  may  be 
sub-divided  into  skull  and  face;  the  trunk  into  chest 
or  thorax  and  the  belly  or  abdomen.  The  arms  are 
sub-divided  into  upper,  fore-arm,  wrist  and  fingers, 
roughly  corresponding  with  thigh,  leg,  ankle  and  toes. 

The  thorax  or  chest  is  separated  from  the  abdomen 
by  a  peculiar  partly  fleshy,  partly  membranous  organ 
called  the  diaphragm.  The  alimentary  canal  lying  in 
front  goes  through  the  diaphragm  and  is  composed  of 
oesophagus,  stomach  and  intestines.  The  abdomen  also 
contains  the  kidneys,  liver,  bladder,  pancreas  and 
spleen.     The  thorax  contains  the  heart  and  lungs. 

The  cavity  of  the  skull  connects  with  the  spinal 
canal.  This  cavity  contains  the  brain  which  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  spinal  cord,  the  brain  and  spinal  cord 
constituting  the  cerebro-spinal  system. 

BONE 

Bones  are  made  up  of  osseous  tissue  which  consists 
essentially  of  animal  matter  similar  to  connective  tissue 
impregnated  chiefly  with  calcium  salts  which  give  rig- 
idity. In  general,  a  bone  is  a  hard,  tough  body,  flex- 
ible and  elastic  within  narrow  limits,  but  breaking  if 
pressed  too  far.  When  a  long  bone  is  broken  across, 
it  is  found  not  to  be  a  solid  mass  of  ossified  tissue, 
but  to  contain  a  cavity  filled  with  a  mass  of  con- 
nective tissue,  called  the  medulla  or  marrow.     This 


Divisions 
of the  Body 


Structure 
of  Bone 


H 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


medullar  cavity  extends  through  the  shaft  or  bone, 
but  as  it  reaches  a  joint  becomes  sub-divided  by  bony 
partitions  and  shows  numerous  smaller  cavities.  The 
walls  of  this  cavity  are  seemingly  dense,  but  are  trav- 
ersed by  a  net  work  of  narrow  vessels  known  as  the 
Haversian  canals  which  have  intimate  association  with 
the  nutrition,  hence  with  formation  of  the  bone. 


Kinds  of 
Bones 


Development 
of the  Bones 


STRUCTURE  OF  BONE,   SHOWING  CANALS  AND  THE  LIVING 
CELLS    (THE  BLACK  SPOTS) 

There  are  two  kinds  of  bones  classified  as  to  their 
origin  :  ( i )  Membrane  bones  developed  from  fibrous 
tissut  including  most  of  the  bones  of  the  head,  (2) 
Cartilage  bones  developed  from  cartilage,  including 
most  of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton. 

The  growth  of  bone  takes  place  largely  in  two 
places,  at  the  epiphyseal  line  or  cartilage  between  the 
shaft  and  head,  and  at  the  outside  covering  or  peri- 
osteum. 

In  the  embryo  "centers  of  ossification"  appear  in 
these  membranes  and  cartilages  and  calcium  salts  are 
deposited  to  form  bone.  In  long  bones  usually  there 
are  three  centers  of  ossification,  one  for  the  shaft  and 
one  at  each  end.    These  grow  toward  each  other  but 


of  Bones 


MUSCLE  1 5 

do  not  completely  unite  until  the  skeleton  nears  the 
adult  size.  Consequently  in  childhood  there  is  danger 
of  fracture  at  this  line  of  union  since  it  is  cartilage 
and  not  fully  developed  bone. 

The  periosteum  is  the  essential  living  and  growing  Living  Part 
part,  much  like  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree.  During  the 
growing  period  especially,  new  bone  is  constantly  be- 
ing laid  down  on  the  outside,  thus  increasing  the  size 
of  the  bone,  while  destruction  is  going  on  within, 
hollowing  out  the  center.  In  youth  the  building  pro- 
cess exceeds  the  destruction.  In  old  age  the  building 
has  nearly  ceased  and  destruction  continues  until  bones 
become  very  brittle.  When  these  bones  are  broken 
they  unite  with  great  difficulty. 

MUSCLE 

Bones,  cartilage  and  connective  tissue  form  the 
framework  of  the  living  machine.  The  origin  of  the 
energy  manifested  by  this  machine,  we  will  consider 
later.  Its  active  power  is  largely  manifested  in  the 
form  of  motion  or  movement,  in  which  the  voluntary 
muscles  or  "organs  of  the  will"  play  a  large  part. 
There  are  certain  cells  exhibiting  amoeboid  movement, 
and  ciliated  cells  which  also  produce  partial  move- 
ments of  the  human  body,  but  the  various  kinds  of 
muscles  are  of  prime  importance  in  its  various  acts. 

We  are  familiar  with  muscles  in  the  form  of  red 
meat  from  the  butcher  shop.  Muscles  constitute  about 
one-half  of  the  body  in  bulk.     There  are  two  main 


i6 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


EXTERNAL  LAYER  OF  MUSCLES  OF  THE  BODY 


MUSCLE  17 

classes  of  mucles,  the  voluntary  which  are  under  the 
control  of  the  will,  and  the  involuntary  which  do  their 
work  independently  of  the  will.  In  general  the  volun- 
tary muscles  are  attached  to  bones  and  for  this  reason 
are  sometimes  called  skeletal  muscles.  They  are  about 
500  in  number.  The  involuntary  muscles  are  found 
in  the  organs  of  the  body,  as  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach, 
intestines,  and  blood  vessels.  Their  particular  func- 
tion is  to  assist  in  the  work  of  the  various  organs  by 
moving  their  contents,  as  illustrated  by  the  movements 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  during  the  process  of 
digestion. 

If  a  single  muscle  is  examined  carefully,  it  is  found  Fibres  and 
to  be  made  up  of  a  number  of  bundles  of  red  fibres 
bound  together  by  means  of  white  connective  tissue. 
At  each  end  of  most  of  the  voluntary  muscles  is  a 
strong  white  cord — a  tendon,  which  serves  to  connect 
the  muscle  to  the  bone.  Every  muscle  is  supplied  with 
nerves  and  blood  vessels  which  ramify  throughout  the 
bundles  of  fibres. 

The  special  property  of  the  living  muscle  is  that  of 
contractility, — the  power  of  shortening  in  length  while 
it  increases  correspondingly  in  width.  The  two  ends 
of  a  muscle  being  attached  to  separate  bones,  the  short- 
ening produces  motion.  This  action  leads  to  those 
motions  which  make  locomotion  and  other  activities 
possible. 

The  muscles  are  found  passing  over  all  the  joints, 
one  or  more  on  each  side,  thus  making  it  possible  to 


1 8  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

move  the  joint  forward  and  backward.  In  some  places, 
as  in  the  shoulder  joint,  the  arrangement  is  such  that 
the  arm  can  be  movea  in  all  directions.  The  muscles 
which  bend  a  joint  are  usually  three  or  four  times  as 
strong  as  those  which  straighten  it.  This  fact  is  easily- 
demonstrated  by  comparing  the  strength  of  the  muscles 
used  in  closing  the  hand  with  those  used  in  opening  it. 
Muscles  which  are  used  for  heavy  work  tend  to  in- 
crease in  size  and  strength,  and  also  to  shorten.  Un- 
used muscles  become  small  and  weak  and  tend  to 
lengthen. 
Muscles  The  proper  relation  of  one  bone  to  the  other  in  a 

Bones  in  joint  depends  on  a  definite  relation  between  the  length 
and  the  strength  of  the  muscles  which  bend  and  those 
which  straighten  the  joint.  If  the  muscles  which  bend 
the  joint  are  overdeveloped  they  shorten  and  stretch 
the  extensor  muscles.  This  gives  a  bent  or  crooked 
position  of  the  joint,  as  illustrated  in  the  half  closed 
hand  of  the  manual  laborer,  resulting  from  the  constant 
grasping  of  tools,  or  the  stooping  attitude  of  the  far- 
mer from  bending  over  in  hoeing  and  other  farm  work. 
The  same  crooked  position  may  result  from  great 
weakness  of  the  extensor  muscles  even  when  the  flex- 
ors are  not  overdeveloped.  Furthermore,  joints  tend 
to  maintain  the  position  in  which  they  are  held  most 
frequently.  The  drooping  head,  round  back  and  pro- 
truding abdomen  of  the  weak  and  undeveloped  are  all 
too  familiar. 

This   condition   is  the   result  of   general  muscular 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  19 

weakness,  and  lengthening  of  the  extensor  mus- 
cles, particularly  of  the  muscles  on  the  back  of  the 
neck  and  chest,  the  abdominal  walls,  the  hips,  and 
the  knees. 

The  proper  relation  between  the  flexor  and  the  ex- 
tensor muscles  of  the  various  joints  is  essential  to 
beauty  of  form  and  grace  of  movement  in  the  human 
body.  When  this  relation  exists  the  muscles  being  of 
exactly  the  proper  length  and  strength  they  are  bal- 
anced. 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

The  nervous  system  is  the  governing  mechanism 
of  the  body.  It  controls  and  regulates  every  activity 
of  the  body,  brings  the  individual  into  conscious  rela- 
tionship with  external  nature  by  means  of  sensation, 
motion,  language  and  all  the  mental  manifestations. 

The  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system  consists  of  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord  and  the  nerves. 

Every  organ  and  part  of  the  body  is  connected  with 
the  brain  by  means  of  the  nerves.  Every  movement 
we  make  is  the  result  of  muscular  contractions  which 
have  been  ordered  or  stimulated  by  the  brain. 

A  nerve  consists  of  the  nerve  center,  located  in  the  ANerveCeii 
brain,  spinal  column,  or  ganglia,  from  which  extends 
the  nerve  fiber.  The  nerve  centers  are  the  sending 
and  receiving  stations — the  fibers,  the  wires.  We  do 
not  know  just  what  a  nervous  impulse  is,  but  it  seems 
to  be  electrical  in  nature,  although  the  nervous  im- 


20 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


The  Brain 


Special 
Centers 


Kinds  of 
Nerves 


pulse  travels  much  more  slowly  than  the  electric 
current. 

In  a  general  way  the  brain  consists  of  nerve  cen- 
ters which  have  for  their  function  the  regulating  of 
the  various  activities  of  the  body.  There  is,  for  in- 
stance, a  center  regulating  eyesight,  another  has  to  do 
with  hearing.  In  the  same  way  there  are  centers  for 
speech,  smell,  breathing,  coughing,  the  beating  of  the 
heart,  the  secreting  of  the  various  glands,  the  move- 
ment of  each  group  of  muscles,  and  all  the  other 
activities  of  the  body. 

The  nerve  centers  in  the  brain  are  numerous  and 
their  functions  very  complex.  For  example,  when  a 
muscle  is  exercised  vigorously,  it  requires  an  increased 
supply  of  blood  and  its  sensory  nerves  carry  a  stimulus 
to  a  particular  center  in  the  brain.  This  center  sends 
stimuli  to  the  centers  which  regulate  the  breathing 
and  the  beating  of  the  heart,  and  these  centers,  in 
turn,  send  stimuli  through  motor  nerves  to  the  heart 
and  muscles  of  respiration  to  increase  their  activity. 
All  the  muscles  and  other  organs  are  connected  in  a 
similar  way  with  the  various  centers  in  the  brain  by 
means  of  the  nerves. 

A  nerve  fiber  carries  impulses  only  in  one  direction, 
to  a  center  or  from  a  center.  In  general  the  nerves 
which  carry  stimuli  from  the  parts  of  the  body  to  the 
brain  are  called  sensory  nerves,  and  the  nerves  which 
carry  stimuli  from  the  brain  are  called  motor  nerves, 
because  nearly  all  the  stimuli  coming  from  the  brain 
produce  movement  or  activity. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


21 


All  nervous  impulses  are  thought  to  be  alike.  They 
vary  only  in  intensity  and  in  the  method  of  stimula- 
tion, thus  the  nerves  in  the  retina  of  the  eye  are  sensi- 
tive only  to  light;  those  in  the  inner  ear,  to  sound. 
If  it  were  possible  to  change  the  nerve  fibers  about,  so 
that  those  coming  from  the  eye  were  connected  with 
the  centers  which  interpret  hearing  and  vice  versa, 
we  would,  as  has  been  said,  "hear  the  lightning  and  see 
the  thunder."  It  is  a  common  experience  that  a  per- 
son who  has  lost  a  foot  or  arm  still  interprets  stimuli 
of  the  nerves  which  formerly  came  from  the  lost  mem- 
ber as  if  the  foot  or  hand  were  still  present. 

Most  activities  are  under  the  control  of  the  will. 
When  we  get  up  from  a  chair  or  carry  a  glass  of 
water  to  the  mouth,  we  call  it  a  conscious  act  because 
the  stimuli  to  the  various  muscles  involved  originate 
in  the  will.  But  if  every  act  depended  on  the  will 
for  its  instigation  and  direction  we  would  remain 
helpless  as  an  infant.  The  development  and  training 
of  the  nervous  system  results  in  many  acts  becoming 
automatic.  The  child  learning  to  walk  takes  months 
of  repeated  conscious  effort  to  learn  to  stand,  and 
several  more  months  to  learn  the  movements  of  walk- 
ing. Gradually  the  act  of  balancing,  and  the  move- 
ments involved  in  placing  one  foot  in  front  of  the  other, 
are  performed  unconsciously  or  automatically,  and  the 
child  is  able  to  walk,  and  later  to  run,  without  any 
conscious  effort.  In  the  same  way  we  learn  to  speak, 
to  eat,  to  put  on  our  clothes,  to  write,  and  to  make  a 


Nature  of 

Nervous 

Impulses 


Voluntary 

Nervous 

System 


22  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

great  many  complicated  movements  which  at  first  re- 
quire conscious   effort,   but  gradually  are  performed 
automatically. 
Automatic  The  back  of  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  have  for 

their  particular  functions  the  regulating  of  these  auto- 
matic acts,  and  this  results  in  a  tremendous  saving 
of  time  and  energy.  If  it  were  not  for  this  provision, 
we  should  spend  most  of  our  time  and  energy  in 
dressing,  for  the  fastening  of  every  button  and  hook 
would  require  many  conscious  efforts  on  our  part. 
Every  new  movement  has  to  be  repeated  a  great  num- 
ber of  times  as  a  conscious  effort  before  it  can  be 
directed  by  an  automatic  center. 
Reflex  Acts  There  is  still  another  class  of  nervous  reactions  not 
under  the  control  of  the  will,  called  reflex  acts.  A 
wink  is  a  typical  reflex  act.  A  sudden  strong  light 
causes  the  eyes  to  close  before  we  have  time  to  think 
about  it,  or  even  to  prevent  it.  Reflex  acts  are  largely 
associated  with  the  protection  of  the  body  from  harm- 
ful conditions.  Too  strong  light  or  dust  irritating  the 
eye  causes  the  lids  to  close;  heat  coming  in  contact 
with  the  hand  causes  the  arm  to  be  snatched  away ;  a 
pin  pricking  the  sole  of  the  foot  causes  the  leg  to  be 
drawn  up  quickly.  All  these  movements  take  place 
with  great  rapidity  and  without  conscious  effort.  The 
irritant  stimulates  the  sensory  nerves  in  the  part;  the 
stimulus  is  carried  to  a  sensory  center;  from  there, 
another  stimulus  is  sent  to  the  proper  motor  centers, 
and    these    in    turn    send    stimuli    to    the    muscles 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 


23 


which  by  their  contraction  protect  the  part  from 
injury. 

Besides  the  central  nervous  system,  there  are  nu- 
merous little  bodies  or  nervous  tissue  called  ganglia 
which  are  for  the  most  part  independent  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  although  connected  with  them.  There 
are  two  chains  of  these  ganglia  in  front  of  the  spine 
and  others  in  the  heart  and  other  organs,  all  of  which 
send  out  numerous  nerve  fibers.  They  are  connected 
with  the  activities  of  the  organs  not  under  the  control 
of  the  will  like  the  heart,  the  blood  vessels,  the  stom- 
ach and  other  digestive  organs,  and  in  fact  all  involun- 
tary activity.  This  is  what  is  called  the  sympathetic 
nervous  system. 

In  many  places  in  the  body,  numerous  nerve  fibers 
interlace,  forming  plexuses,  especially  around  the  blood 
vessels.  The  great  plexus  of  nerve  fibres  in  the  abdo- 
men is  called  the  "solar  plexus." 

Many  of  the  organs  controlled  by  the  involuntary 
sjstem  have  two  sets  of  nerves  opposite  in  their  action; 
for  example,  one  set  of  nerves  accelerates  the  heart 
beats,  another  retards,  or  "inhibits,"  action ;  in  the 
stomach,  one  set  brings  about  the  secretion  of  the  gas- 
tric juice,  another  is  inhibitory. 

In  health  all  this  marvelous  complexity  of  nervous 
organization  is  in  perfect  co-ordination.  The  nervous 
system  is  wonderfully  protected  in  all  parts  of  the 
body,  for  it  controls  the  growth  and  function  of  all 
the  cells. 


Sympathetic 
or  Ganglia 
Nervous 
System 


Stimulation 

and 

Inhibition 


THE  SKIN  AND  CONNECTIVE  TISSUES 


The  Skin 


Dermis 


Mucous 
Membrane 


There  are  various  complicated  classifications  of  the 
tissues.  It  is  enough  for  our  purposes  to  divide  them 
arbitrarily  into  skin  or  protective  covering,  and  con- 
nective tissue,  the  latter  term  covering  many  sub- 
divisions. 

The  skin  consists  of  layers  of  tissue  of  varying 
thickness  which  cover  the  whole  body.  If  we  examine 
a  piece  of  skin  in  cross-section,  we  find  on  the  surface 
a  thin  layer  of  hard,  flat  cells  without  nerves  or  blood 
vessels.  This  outer  surface  is  called  the  epidermis,  is 
composed  of  minute  particles  of  horny  matter  and  is 
constantly  being  shed.  The  sensation  of  touch  and 
the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  surface  of  the  body 
are  greatly  diminished  in  intensity  because  of  this 
covering,  as  it  contains  no  nerves  or  blood  vessels. 
The  great  sensibility  of  the  under  skin  when  the  outer 
covering  is  removed,  is  illustrated  by  the  practice  of  a 
famous  burglar  who  was  able  to  open  bank  safes  by 
pressing  the  ends  of  his  fingers,  from  which  he  had 
removed  the  outer  skin,  against  the  lock  on  the  safe 
and  thus  feeling  the  clicks  as  the  knob  was  turned. 

The  under  skin  or  dermis  is  filled  with  a  meshwork 
of  nerves,  blood  vessels  and  glands.  While  it  is  dense 
and  fibrous,  if  wounded  gives  rise  to  pain  and  easily 
bleeds. 

At  the  margins  of  the  various  apertures  of  the  body 
is  a  layer  of  skin,  redder,  more  sensitive,  and  continu- 


THE  SKIN 


25 


ally  moistened  by  a  fluid  which  it  exudes.  This  is 
mucous  membrane  and  lines  all  interior  cavities.  This 
is  a  skin  and  consists  of  two  layers  now  called  the 
dermis  and  the  epithelium. 

The  ducts  of  the  glands  in  the  dermis  pierce  the 
outer  skin,  but  the  nerves  and  blood  vessels  are  all 
below  the  epidermis. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  glands  in  the  outer  skin, 
the  sweat  glands  which  secrete  water  and  waste  mat- 
ter dissolved  in  perspiration,  and  the  oil  glands  which 
secrete  an  oily  material  useful  in  keeping  the  skin  soft 
and  pliable. 

The  sweat  glands  are  very  numerous.  They  are 
eliminating  perspiration  continuously,  but  most  of  it 
dries  on  the  skin  without  giving  a  sensation  of  moist- 
ure. It  is  only  when  these  glands  are  stimulated  to 
great  activity  by  vigorous  muscular  exercise,  nervous- 
ness, emotion  or  heat,  that  the  sweat  accumulates  in 
drops  which  perceptibly  moisten  the  skin.  These 
glands  in  an  adult  secrete  on  an  average  about  one 
quart  of  perspiration  in  24  hours,  and  a  much  larger 
quantity  in  hot  weather. 

The  sweat  glands  serve  to  regulate  the  temperature 
of  the  body.  Under  active  muscular  exercise  in  the 
heat  of  summer,  or  in  overheated  rooms,  large  quan- 
tities of  blood  flow  through  the  capillaries  of  the 
skin,  the  sweat  glands  are  stimulated  to  greater  ac- 
tivity, and  the  sweat  poured  out  of  these  glands  serves 
to  cool  the  body  by  evaporation.  Evaporation,  as  we 
know,  requires  a  large  amount  of  heat. 


Glands  of 
the  Skin 


Sweat 
Glands 


Temperature 
Regulation 


26  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Experiment.  Rub  a  drop  of  ether,  alcohol,  or  gaso- 
line on  the  back  of  the  hand.  The  skin  is  chilled  by 
the  evaporation.  A  like  quantity  of  water  in  evap- 
orating will  carry  away  much  more  heat,  but  as  the 
volatilization  is  not  so  rapid  the  cooling  is  not  so 
noticeable. 

The  process  is  reversed  when  the  body  temperature 
is  too  low  and  the  surrounding  air  is  very  cold.  Under 
these  conditions  the  capillaries  in  the  skin  contract,  very 
little  blood  flows  through  them,  the  sweat  glands 
almost  cease  their  activity  and  a  very  small  amount 
of  heat  is  lost  from  the  body  by  evaporation.  The 
normal  activity  of  the  skin  therefore  is  an  important 
factor  in  maintaining  health  and  preserving  energy. 
Sebaceous  The  oil  glands  are  found  ail  over  the  body  except  in 
Hairs  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet.  Each 
gland  is  located  at  the  root  of  a  hair  and  opens  into 
the  depression  in  the  skin  or  hair  follicle  which  con- 
tains the  hair.  The  hairs  are  so  small  and  short  in 
many  places  that  they  are  practically  invisible.  When 
a  cold  draft  strikes  the  skin  suddenly,  we  have  what 
is  called  "goose  flesh,"  due  to  the  contraction  of  a 
tiny  muscle  .  near  the  bottom  of  each  hair  follicle 
which  causes  the  hair  to  straighten  up  or  "to  stand 
on  end."  The  amount  of  oil  secreted  by  these  glands 
varies  in  different  persons,  and  in  different  races.  It 
is  well  known  that  negroes  have  much  more  oil  in  the 
skin  than  whites.  A  certain  amount  of  oil  is  essential 
to  the  health  of  the  skin  and  to  keep  it  soft  and  pliable. 


The  skin  27 

In  the  deeper  part  of  the  dermis  is  found  a  coloring  complexion 
matter  which  determines  the  complexion.  The  amount 
varies  greatly  in  different  individuals  and  in  different 
races.  A  dark  skin  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  large 
quantity  of  this  pigment  in  the  dermis.  Negroes  have 
a  very  great  amount  of  coloring  matter,  whereas  per- 
sons with  fair  complexions  have  very  little.  Freckles 
are  caused  by  the  accumulation  of  pigment  in  spots. 
The  amount  of  pigment  in  the  dermis  cannot  be 
altered  by  the  application  of  medicinal  preparations  or 
the  taking  of  medicine  internally.  The  various  facial 
preparations  advertised  to  bleach  and  beautify  the  skin 
consist  of  some  form  of  scented  pomade  usually  con- 
taining arsenic.  Such  preparations  are  harmful.  The 
arsenic  does  not  decrease  the  amount  of  pigment  in 
the  skin,  it  simply  interferes  with  the  circulation  of 
blood  in  the  capillaries  and  produces  a  certain  pallor 
characteristic  of  arsenical  poisoning. 

In  the  deeper  layer  or  dermis,  and  just  beneath  it,  Fat  in 
is  found  a  layer  of  fat.  The  amount  varies  greatly 
in  different  persons  at  different  ages,  and  in  the  sexes. 
This  fat  protects  the  body  from  cold,  rounds  out  the 
form  and  serves  as  reserve  fuel  supply  for  the  body. 
The  angular  form  of  thin  persons  and  the  wrinkles  of 
old  age  are  largely  due  to  a  diminution  of  fat  under 
the  skin. 

The  skin  varies  in  thickness  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.  On  the  eyelids  and  most  of  the  covered  parts  of 
the  body  the  skin  is  quite  thin,  but  on  the  palms  of  the 


28 


PERSONAL  HYGIEXE 


Cartilage 


Connective 
Tissue 


hands,  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  the  scalp,  it  is  often 
very  thick.  This  is  especially  true  of  people  who  do 
manual  labor  and  walk  or  stand  all  day.  Under  these 
conditions  the  skin  thickens  to  protect  the  delicate 
parts  beneath  from  the  constant  pressure  on  the  sur- 
face. This  thickening  becomes  excessive  and  causes 
great  pain  when  the  pressure  or  friction  is  too  long 
continued,  as  when  a  callous  is  formed  on  the  hand 
by  doing  manual  work,  or  a  corn  on  the  foot  by  wear- 
ing too  small  or  ill-fitting  shoes. 

The  nails  and  hairs,  like  the  callous,  are  only  modi- 
fications of  the  skin,  serving  for  protection  of  exposed 
and  delicate  parts  of  the  body. 

In  early  years  many  parts  of  the  supporting  frame- 
work which  later  became  bone  consist  of  cartilage. 
The  infant  softness  comes  from  the  cartilaginous  con- 
dition of  many  bones,  these  being  known  as  the  tem- 
porary- cartilages,  as  later  ossification  will  take  place 
and  the  cartilaginous  be  replaced  by  true  bony  tissue. 

In  certain  portions  of  the  body,  however,  the  carti- 
laginous or  permanent  tissue  remains  such  through 
life  unless  calcified  or  hardened  and  made  unyielding 
by  deposits,  as  often  happens  in  old  age. 

In  its  pure  form,  cartilage  is  flexible  and  elastic,  and 
contains  few  blood  vessels  and  living  cells. 

The  connective  tissue  constitutes  the  final  group  of 
the  supporting  tissues  and  has  many  diversions,  from 
a  white  fibrous  variety  mainly  connected  with  muscles 
and  joints  to  the  jelly-like  connective  tissue  making 
up  the  vitreous  humor  of  the  eye. 


THE  SENSE  ORGANS 


Something  of  the  structure  of  the  organs  which  sup- 
port the  frame-work  of  the  living  machine,  the  bones 
and  connective  tissue,  has  been  described.  Those 
which  move  it,  the  muscles  and  cerebro-spinal  nervous 
system,  have  been  briefly  considered.  There  remains 
to  touch  upon,  the  sensory  organs,  before  considering 
those  which  are  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
''running  of  the  machine." 

There  are  only  certain  organs  which  convey  the 
various  impressions  from  without.  Any  surface  of 
the  body  may  be  sensitive  to,  or  "feel"  the  sensation 
of  heat  or  of  cold,  but  only  certain  portions  of  the 
body  are  capable  of  reporting  sound,  light,  or  smell. 
Therefore,  those  organs  which  put  us  in  some  par- 
ticular relation  with  the  outer  world  are  termed 
sensory  organs. 

Since  between  these  sense  organs  and  the  sensory 
centers,  the  brain,  the  nervous  impulses  are  the  only 
means  of  communication,  it  is  of  prime  importance 
that  the  nervous  system  be  a  perfectly  working  part 
of  the  human  machine.  It  is  of  course  important  that 
the  special  sense  organs  of  sight,  sound,  smell  and 
taste  be  highly  developed,  educated  and  healthy,  but 
it  is  through  the  sense  of  touch  and  motor  activities 
as  well  as  what  we  call  thought  that  the  higher  nerv- 
ous  organization  of   man   has  been   evolved.      It    is 


Sensation 


Sense 
Organs 
Develop 
the  Brain 


29 


End  Organ 


30  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

through  the  sense  and  motor  activities  that  man  has 
been  able  to  modify  his  primitive  instinct.  It  is 
through  the  education  of  the  senses  that  man  is  raised 
above  the  animal.  In  many  animals  the  special  senses 
of  sight,  hearing,  taste  and  smell  are  more  highly  de- 
veloped than  in  man,  but  in  no  animal  does  the  ability 
to  make  complicated  movements  approach  that  of  man. 

sense  The  fundamental  part  of  every  sense  organ  is  what 

may  be  termed  the  end  organs.  These  are  masses  of 
highly  sensitive  tissue  so  placed  as  to  be  normally 
acted  upon  by  one  of  the  modes  of  motion  met  with 
in  the  external  world.  This  end  organ  must  have  a 
sensory  nerve  fibre  connecting  with  a  nerve  center 
in  the  brain.  Seeing  and  hearing  are  the  two  most 
specialized  senses  and  will  be  considered  separately. 
The  others  are  the  sense  of  touch,  the  senses  of  heat 
and  cold,  the  senses  of  smell  and  taste,  the  sense  of 
pain,  the  muscular  sense,  and  what  may  be  termed 
common  sensation,  as  hunger,  thirst,  fatigue,  restless- 
ness, and  the  like. 

Tactile  The  sense  of  touch  which  is  really  the  pressure  sense 
is  located  in  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane.  It  varies 
in  acuteness  in  different  portions  of  the  body,  being 
most  marked  at  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  fingers,  and  lips. 
The  tactile  impression  is  a  very  necessary  one  in  edu- 
cation and  should  be  developed  far  more  than  is  usually 
the  case,  and  those  who,  like  Helen  Keller,  are  both 
deaf  and  blind  receive  all  their  education  through  the 
tactile  sensations. 


Senses 


THE  SENSE  ORGANS 


3i 


According  to  the  older  view,  the  temperature  sense 
as  well  as  the  sense  of  pain  was  thought  to  be  a  part 
of  the  sense  of  touch.  It  is  now  known,  however,  that 
in  the  skin  there  are  distinct  and  separate  nerve  end- 
ings for  heat,  for  cold,  and  for  pain,  as  well  as  for 
pressure.  The  distribution  of  the  hot  and  cold  spots  on 
the  skin  can  be  localized  by  passing  a  hot  and  a  cold 
wire  successively  slowly  over  any  part  of  the  skin,  as 
on  the  back  of  the  hand. 

The  nerve  endings  for  the  sense  of  pain  are  most 
numerous  in  the  skin.  The  internal  sensations  of  pain 
are  usually  referred  indefinitely  to  some  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  body — for  the  heart  to  the  region  of  the 
shoulder  blades,  for  the  intestines  to  the  back,  from 
the  stomach  to  the  end  of  the  sternum. 

We  are  not  usually  distinctly  conscious  of  muscular 
sensibility.  Our  ideas  of  weight  and  resistance,  al- 
though depending  in  part  on  the  sense  of  pressure,  are 
largely  determined  by  the  muscular  sense.  Judgment 
of  distance  depends  on  visual  impression  combined 
with  the  contraction  of  the  ciliary  muscles  in  focusing, 
especially  for  near  objects.  The  muscular  sense  is 
thought  to  have  much  to  do  with  the  proper  contraction 
of  the  muscles  and  thus  becomes  important  in  all  vol- 
untary movements.  It  is  probable  that  through  the 
muscular  sense  is  received  the  impression  of  fatigue. 

The  sense  of  smell  is  located  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  upper  part  of  the  nasal  cavity  in  which 
the   olfactory   nerves   are    distributed.     Its    important 


Temperature 
Sense 


Sense  of 
Pain 


Muscular 
Sense 


Sense  of 
Smell 


Sense 
of  Taste 


32 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


function  is  to  guard  us  against  the  breathing  of  im- 
pure air. 

The  sense  of  taste  may  be  a  highly  specialized  sense 
and  is  so  needful  a  part  of  the  acts  of  nutrition  that  it 


SECTION  OF  THE  NASAL  CAVITY,  OLFACTORY 
NERVE  INDICATED 


Primary 

Taste 

Sensations 


should  be  considered  a  most  important  sense.  It  is 
localized  mainly  in  the  mucous  membrane  covering 
the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue. 

The  sensation  of  taste  may  be  resolved  into  four  pri- 
mary tastes — sour,  sweet,  bitter,  and  salty.  All  our 
sensations  of  taste  are  the  result  of  the  mingling  of 
these  primary  tastes  with  the  sense  of  smell.    Many  of 


SIGHT  33 

the  so-called  tastes  are  in  reality  given  through  stimu- 
lus of  the  olfactory  nerves.  This  is  largely  so  in  the 
case  of  fragrant  fruits,  the  bouquet  of  wines,  and  in 
fact  all  substances  of  which  we  say  that  the  taste  and 
smell  is  alike.  The  expired  air,  passing  over  the  food, 
carries  some  of  the  delicate  ethers  across  the  olfactory 
nerves,  thus  we  have  a  combination  sensation  of  taste 
and  smell.  This  fact  is  recognized  when  one  has  a 
bad  cold;  many  things  "do  not  taste."  Holding  the 
nose  is  a  common  practice  when  disagreeable  medicines 
must  be  taken. 

As  we  shall  see  later  when  considering  gastric  diges- 
tion, taste  and  smell  have  a  marked  effect  on  the  flow 
of  the  gastric  juices  so  that  we  need  to  cultivate  these 
senses,  and  pay  more  attention  to  their  proper  function 
than  is  often  the  case. 

THE  SENSE  OF  SIGHT 

The  eyes  are  in  some  ways  the  most  important  or-  structure 
gans  in  the  body.  The  eye  consists  of  the  eye-ball  and 
the  optic  nerve.  From  the  front  of  the  eye-ball  to  the 
retina  at  the  back,  the  light  passes  through  a  small, 
transparent  body  called  the  lens  which  answers  the 
same  purpose  as  the  lens  in  a  camera  in  making  an 
image.  The  retina  corresponds  to  the  photographic 
plate  and  the  lens  focuses  the  image  upon  it.  Normal 
vision  depends  on  the  proper  distance  between  the  lens 
and  the  retina.  In  focusing  a  camera,  the  lens  is 
moved  back  and  forth  until  a  point  is  found  where  the 


34 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Accommoda- 
tion 


The  Iris 


Defects  of 
Vision 


distance  between  the  plate  and  the  lens  is  just  right 
to  give  a  clear  reflection.  Clear  vision  depends  upon 
the  same  principle,  except  that  the  lens  in  the  eye  is 
not  moved  backward  and  forward  from  the  retina,  but 
the  shape  or  curvature  of  the  lens  is  changed,  thus 
giving  the  same  result. 

The  change  in  the  shape  of  the  lens  is  accomplished 
by  a  little  muscle  called  the  ciliary  muscle  which,  by 
pulling  on  the  suspensory  ligament,  changes  the  shape 
of  the  lens  according  as  we  wish  to  look  at  an  object 
near  or  far  away.  This  mechanism  for  focusing  the 
eye  on  objects  at  various  distances  is  called  accom- 
modation. 

Another  structure  on  the  eye-ball,  called  the  iris,  is 
important.  It  is  a  little  curtain-like  arrangement  placed 
in  front  of  the  lens  and  serves  to  regulate  the  amount 
of  light  entering  the  eye.  The  change  in  the  size  of 
the  opening,  or  pupil,  may  be  seen  by  placing  the  hand 
on  the  eye  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  removing  it 
quickly,  when  the  pupil  will  appear  very  large  but  will 
soon  become  much  smaller  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  light. 
The  pupil  is  largest  when  we  open  our  eyes  in  the 
dark,  and  smallest  when  we  look  at  a  bright  light. 

In  many  persons  the  shape  of  the  eye-ball  is  such 
that  perfect  vision  is  impossible.  The  eye-ball  is  some- 
times too  long.  When  this  occurs,  the  clear  image 
falls  in  front  of  the  retina,  and  in  order  to  see  clearly 
it  is  necessary  for  the  ciliary  muscle  to  be  in  a  state  of 
constant  contraction.     This  causes  eye  strain  with  its 


SIGHT 


35 


many  disagreeable  symptoms.  This  condition  is  called 
near-sightedness  or  myopia,  and  is  corrected  by  wear- 
ing a  concave  lens  in  front  of  the  eye. 

The  opposite  condition,  or  far-sightedness,  is  caused 
by  the  eye-ball  being  too  short  and  the  clear  image 
falling  behind  the  retina.  This  may  be  corrected  by 
a  convex  lens  in  front  of  the  eye. 

In  old  age  the  elasticity  of  the  lens  become  im- 
paired and  it  cannot  be  sufficiently  contracted  to  bring 


^0       EE^ 


CURVATURE  OF  THE   EYE-BALL 
A.  Normal.        B,  In  Near-Sightedness.        C,  In  Far-Sightedness. 

near  objects  into  focus,  so  that  convex  glasses  are  re- 
quired. 

Another  very  common  defect  of  sight  is  astigma- 
tism. This  is  due  to  irregularity  in  the  curvature  of 
the  cornea,  which  prevents  a  clear  image  in  all  parts 
of  the  retina.  To  correct  this  a  cylindrically  ground 
lens  is  necessary. 

In  many  persons  the  two  eyes  are  not  alike.  One 
eye  may  be  defective  while  the  other  is  normal,  or  the 
two  eyes  may  have  similar  or  opposite  defects. 

Eye  strain  results  from  over-exertion  of  the  ciliary 
muscle.  Some  of  the  most  common  symptoms  are 
pain  in  the  eyes,  a  headache  located  on  the  forehead 
or  in  the  back  of  the  head,  and  inflamed  eye-lids.    Dis- 


Astigmatism 


Eye 
Strain 


36  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

turbance  of  the  appetite,  indigestion,  and  even  nervous 
prostration  may  result  from  long  continued  eye  strain. 
When  any  of  these  symptoms  are  felt  the  eyes  should 
be  examined  carefully  by  an  oculist  and  suitable 
glasses  worn. 

The  eyes  are  moved  upward  and  downward,  from 
side  to  side,  or  rotated,  by  means  of  small  muscles 
which  hold  the  eye-balls  in  the  sockets.  Both  eyes 
should  move  exactly  together  and  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. When  some  of  the  muscles  in  one  eye  are  too 
weak  to  do  their  work  properly,  squinting  results.  By 
operating  on  the  muscles  the  proper  balance  between 
the  muscles  of  one  eye-ball  and  those  of  the  other  may 
sometimes  be  re-established. 
color  Color  blindness   is   inability  to   distinguish   all  the 

colors.  In  most  cases  it  is  limited  to  inability  to  recog- 
nize red  and  green,  but  occasionally  the  defect  ex- 
tends to  yellow  and  blue.  Those  who  are  unable  to 
distinguish  these  colors  see  them  all  gray.  There  is 
no  cure  for  this  condition,  but  a  certain  amount  of 
improvement  is  possible  by  education. 
care  of  To  preserve  the  eyesight  it  is  necessary  to  avoid 
the  Eyes  excessive  use  of  the  eyes  in  work  requiring  close  ap- 
plication, reading  and  sewing  in  a  poor  light,  reading 
matter  printed  in  small  type  and  on  glazed  paper, 
and  reading  in  the  cars.  When  reading  at  night  the 
pages  should  be  held  in  such  a  position  that  there  is 
no  reflected  glare  from  the  paper. 

If  the  eyes  begin  to  smart  or  burn  when  reading  or 


Blindness 


LIGHT  37 

sewing  they  should  be  rested  by  looking  away,  and  if 
this  symptom  reappears  after  reading  or  sewing  for  a 
short  time  only,  the  eyes  should  be  examined  by  an 
oculist. 

The  light  as  far  as  possible  should  fall  on  the  page  Lighting 
or  work  from  above  and  behind;  thus  when  writing, 
the  light  should  fall  from  the  left  side  to  avoid  a 
shadow  cast  by  the  hand.  There  should  be  a  shade 
over  the  source  of  artificial  light  and  the  room  should 
have  general  illumination  as  well  as  the  reading  light. 

Reading  in  street  cars  and  railroad  trains  is  injuri- 
ous because  the  light  is  frequently  poor  and  the  jolting 
necessitates  rapid  accommodation  of  the  eyes  which 
very  soon  tires  out  the  ciliary  muscles  and  produces 
eye  strain.  As  there  is  a  definite  relation  between  good 
eyesight  and  general  health,  no  efforts  should  be  spared 
to  maintain  a  normal  condition  of  the  eyes. 

Nature  has  provided  considerable  natural  protection  Foreign 
for  the  eyes.  They  are  located  in  deep,  bony  sockets  in°theEye 
and  receive  additional  protection  from  the  nose,  the 
eyelids,  and  the  eyelashes.  Injury  to  the  eyes  often 
results  from  foreign  bodies  entering  the  eye  or  blows 
received  on  the  eye-ball.  A  cinder  or  other  foreign 
substance  on  the  eye-ball  may  cause  much  pain  and 
considerable  inflammation.  If  the  foreign  body  is  a 
piece  of  steel  or  anything  sharp  and  hard  which  has 
fallen  against  the  eye-ball  with  great  force,  it  may 
penetrate  and  produce  permanent  injury.  Very  seri- 
ous results  from  foreign  bodies  and  wounds  on  the 


38  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

eye-ball  are  caused  by  injury  to  the  cornea,  leaving 
scar  tissue  after  the  wound  is  healed. 

A  cinder  or  a  speck  of  dust  in  the  eye  may  be  re- 
moved with  the  corner  of  a  clean  handkerchief  by 
drawing  back  the  upper  lid  gently.  If  the  speck  is  im- 
bedded in  the  eye-ball,  the  services  of  a  physician 
should  be  secured  at  once, 
cataract  Cataract  is  not  a  growth  on  the  eye,  as  is  often  be- 

lieved, but  an  opacity  or  loss  of  transparency  of  the 
lens.  It  is  an  affection  of  old  people,  with  no  apparent 
cause  except  old  age.  This  trouble  can  be  cured  per- 
manently by  removing  the  optic  lens — an  operation 
which  is  not  very  serious. 
Tears  The  lachrymal  gland  is  a  small  gland  located  in  the 

outer  corner  of  the  eye  and  secreting  a  clear  fluid  for 
the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  eye-ball.  This  fluid 
flows  down  the  tear  passage  at  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eye  to  the  nose.  The  lachrymal  gland  secretes  nor- 
mally an  amount  of  fluid  just  sufficient  to  keep  the 
eyes  lubricated.  Emotional  excitement,  irritating 
gases,  inflammation  of  the  eyes,  and  eye-strain  stimu- 
late this  gland  to  greatly  increased  activity. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  opening  between  the  eye- 
lids has  much  to  do  with  the  expression  and  with  the 
beauty  of  the  face.  The  size  of  the  eye-balls  does  not 
vary  greatly  in  different  persons,  but  the  appearance 
of  large  eyes  which  is  considered  an  element  of  beauty 
is  due  to  the  long  opening  between  the  lids. 

The  eyelashes  are  subject  to  a  disease  called  "blear- 


HEARING  39 

eye"  or  red  lids,  in  which  the  roots  of  the  lashes  are 
inflamed,  the  edges  of  the  lids  become  swollen,  most 
of  the  lashes  fall,  and  when  new  ones  grow  they  are 
short  and  frequently  grow  inward,  causing  much  irri- 
tation and  pain.  This  disease  does  not  respond  easily 
to  treatment  and  in  every  case  an  oculist  should  be 
consulted. 

The  eyebrows  consist  of  muscles,  thick  skin,  and  Eyebrows 
hairs.  Abundance  of  hair,  mobility,  and  the  shape  of 
the  eyebrows  are  important  features  in  determining 
the  expression  of  the  face.  The  growth  of  the  hair 
on  the  brows  is  subject  to  the  same  limitations  as  the 
hair  on  the  scalp  and  should  receive  the  same  care. 

THE  SENSE  OF  HEARING 


The  ear  is  a  very  important  organ  but  it  usually 
receives  much  less  attention  and  care  than  the  eye. 
That  part  of  the  ear  which  is  seen  is  the  least  impor- 
tant. If  we  look  in  the  canal  of  the  ear  we  see  a 
curved  passage  ending  in  a  very  thin  pink  mem- 
brane, which  closes  the  inner  end  of  the  canal.  But 
if  we  could  look  through  this  membrane,  commonly 
called  the  ear  drum,  we  should  see  a  small  cavity,  the 
middle  ear,  containing  three  little  bones  connected  with 
each  other,  resting  at  one  end  against  a  small  body 
shaped  like  a  shell. 

All  these  parts,  the  external  ear,  the  external  canal, 
the  ear  drum,  and  the  three  little  bones,  serve  the  pur- 


The  Ear 


4o 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


pose  of  receiving  sound  waves  and  conveying  them  to 
the  delicate  auditory  nerve  which  ends  in  many  little 
nerve  fibres  in  the  well-shaped  body  in  the  inner  ear. 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  EAR 

The  "auditory  canal*'  is  about  an  inch  long,  ending  in  the  drum  membrane  T.  The  "middle 
ear"j»  contains  the  three  small  bones  which  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  membrane;  B,  Semi 
circular  canal;  5,  Cochlea;  E,  Eustachian  Tube. 


Semicircular 
Canals 


The  auditory  nerves  receive  impressions  of  sound  from 
the  vibration  of  little  bones  and  transmit  the  impres- 
sions to  the  brain. 

In  the  little  body  of  the  inner  ear  is  a  small  cavity 
containing  a  liquid.  The  function  of  this  little  cavity 
is  to  help  to  maintain  our  equilibrium ;  it  is  really  a 


HEARING  41 

kind  of  spirit-level  which  helps  us  to  determine  our 
relation  to  the  horizon.  There  is  a  nervous  connec- 
tion between  this  little  spirit-level  and  the  stomach. 
When  we  lose  our  bearings,  as  for  instance  when  we 
are  on  a  ship,  rocking  and  pitching,  it  is  believed  that 
the  symptoms  of  nausea  known  as  seasickness  are 
caused  by  a  disturbance  of  this  little  spirit-level  in 
the  ear. 

The  cavity  of  the  middle  ear  is  connected  with  the     Eustachian 

J  Tube 

back  part  of  the  nasal  cavity  by  a  small  passage  about 
the  size  of  a  goose  quill,  called  the  Eustachian  tube. 
The  walls  of  the  middle  ear,  the  Eustachian  tubes,  and 
the  nose  are  all  lined  with  mucous  membrane.  A  very 
common  trouble  in  our  climate  is  a  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane.  As  the  nose  is  the 
most  common  seat  of  this  affliction,  the  connection  be- 
tween the  nose  and  ears  is  exceedingly  important, 
because  cartarrh  spreads  easily  from  one  organ  to  the 
other.  Often  deafness  results  from  catarrh  of  the 
middle  ear  and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  inflammation  of  the  post- nasal  space. 

The  disease  not  infrequently  spreads  from  the  nose 
to  the  ears  as  a  result  of  the  common  habit  of  sniffing 
salt  water  to  relieve  a  cold  in  the  head  or  as  a  treat- 
ment for  chronic  catarrh.  The  act  of  sniffing  has  a 
tendency  to  draw  secretions  from  the  nose  into  the 
ears.  The  use  of  a  nasal  douche  or  oil  atomizer  is  far 
better  for  the  nose  and  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring 
the  ears. 


42 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Earache 


Foreign 

Bodies 

in  the  Ear 


Ear  'Wax 


Acute  inflammation  of  the  ears  which  not  infre- 
quenty  results  in  an  abscess  is  a  condition  fraught  with 
much  danger.  If  the  abscess  involves  the  "mastoid 
cells"  in  the  round  hard  bone  behind  the  ear,  there  is 
always  a  possibility  that  it  may  break  into  the  brain 
cavity  and  result  in  death. 

When  a  child  complains  of  earache,  a  hot  water  bag 
should  be  placed  over  the  painful  ear  and  a  doctor  sent 
for  at  once. 

It  happens  quite  often  that  children  will  put  beans 
or  other  foreign  bodies  in  their  ears  and  be  unable 
to  remove  them.  In  such  a  case  no  attempt  should  be 
made  to  remove  the  foreign  body  by  prying  it  out  with 
a  toothpick  or  button-hook.  The  best  thing  to  do  is 
to  send  for  a  physician  at  once.  If  it  is  positively 
known  that  the  foreign  body  is  not  a  vegetable,  the 
following  procedure  may  be  tried:  Make  a  solution 
of  soap  and  warm  water,  put  it  in  a  fountain  syringe, 
hang  the  syringe  a  foot  above  the  child's  ear  and  allow 
the  water  to  flow  in  the  ear.  This  treatment  would 
be  very  dangerous  if  the  foreign  body  were  a  bean  or 
pea  because  the  water  would  cause  the  vegetable  to 
swell  and  give  intense  pain. 

Another  most  disagreeable  condition  of  the  ears  is 
when  a  mass  of  hard  wax  accumulates  near  the  drum ; 
this  causes  much  pain  and  the  sufferer  hears  all  sorts 
of  loud  noises.  The  treatment  for  this  condition  is 
exactly  the  same  as  for  the  removal  of  a  foreign  body. 
It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  continue  the  use  of  the 


HEARING  43 

syringe  for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  before  the  wax 
is  sufficiently  softened  to  be  washed  out  by  the  water. 
This  condition  is  very  common  and  may  not  give  pain 
but  simply  make  one  a  little  hard  of  hearing. 

The  ear  canal  should  be  kept  clean  by  rolling  the 
corner  of  a  soft  moist  towel  and  wiping  the  wax  and 
dust  which  accumulates  in  the  ear.  Hair-pins,  button- 
hooks, and  toothpicks  should  never  be  used  to  remove 
wax  from  the  ear,  for  there  is  danger  of  injuring  the 
delicate  ear-drum. 

Deafness    results    from    various    causes.      Catarrh,      Deafness 
measles,  and  scarlet  fever  are  often  followed  by  deaf- 
ness of  one  or  both  ears.     The  ears  of  patients  suffer- 
ing  from  any  of  these   diseases   should  be   watched 
carefully. 

Having  very  briefly  considered  the  human  machine 
and -the  means  by  which  its  relations  to  the  external 
is  established,  wre  will  next  take  up  the  "running  of 
the  machine." 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

The  following  questions  constitute  the  "written  reci- 
tation" which  the  regular  members  of  the  A.  S.  H.  E. 
answer  in  writing  and  send  in  for  the  correction  and 
comment  of  the  instructor.  They  are  intended  to 
emphasize  and  fix  in  the  memory  the  most  important 
points  in  the  lesson. 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

PART  I 


Read  Carefully.  This  is  so  essentially  a  personal  subject 
that  many  of  the  questions  are  made  personal.  To  obtain  the 
greatest  benefit  from  these  lessons  such  questions  should  be 
answered  fully.  It  will  be  desirable  if  possible  to  supplement 
the  text  by  reading  some  of  the  books  mentioned  in  the  program 
for  supplemental  study.  Your  questions  should  enable  the  in- 
structor to  supplement  the  text.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  paper 
only  and  leave  space  between  answers. 


i.     To  what  extent  have  you  studied  the  subject  of 
personal  health  before  reading  these  lessons  ? 

2.  On  what  factors  does  personal  health  depend  ?     In 

your  own  case,  which  is  the  most  important? 

3.  What  can  you  say  from  your  personal  standpoint 

of  the  value  of  health? 

4.  What    are    the    fundamental    living    units    of   the 

body?      How   are   they  combined   and    how  is 
their  life  governed? 

5.  Describe   the   structure    of   a   bone;   a   muscle;    a 

nerve. 

6.  What   are  the   functions   of   the    nervous   system? 

Answer  fully. 

7.  Through  what  means  is  the  brain  developed? 

8.  How  should  the  eyes  be  cared  for?     What  attention 

do  you  give  to  your  own  eyesight? 

9.  Describe  the  ear.     How  may  deafness  be  brought 

about  ? 

10.  What  is  the  aim  of  personal  hygiene? 

11.  What  questions  have  you  to  ask  ? 

Note. — After  completing  the  answers,  sign  your  full  name. 

45 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  POSITION  OF  LARGER  ORGANS 
IN  THE  BODY. 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

PART    II 


Energy 


Running  the  Machine 

THE  living  body  cannot  create  energy.  It  can 
only,  in  common  with  other  machines,  use  the 
energy  provided,  and  transform  it  into  other 
forms  of  energy  —  heat  energy,  mechanical  energy, 
and,  perhaps,  electrical  energy.  Food  is,  as  we  know, 
the  fuel  of  the  human  machine,  but  it  is  only  by  com- 
bining with  oxygen  that  the  nutriments  of  food  can 
yield  their  store  of  energy  to  the  body. 

The  primary  source  of  all  terrestrial  energy  is  the  Source  of 
light  and  heat  coming  from  the  sun,  except  the  small 
amount  from  the  internal  heat  of  the  earth  and  that 
from  the  tides.  This  energy  is  stored  up  by  plant 
life — by  the  greenery  of  nature.  It  is  only  by  means 
of  the  chlorophyl  of  green  leaves  that  the  energy  in 
light  and  heat  can  be  used  to  build  up  the  complex 
compounds  which  are  broken  down  by  animals  and 
plants  in  the  construction  of  their  cells,  and  in  main- 
taining life.  Every  life  process,  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal, except  the  action  of  the  chlorophyl,  uses  this 
stored  energy  and  dissipates  a  part  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  heat.  Thus,  the  human  machine  uses  the 
energy  from  the  sun,  stored  up  in  food,  for  main- 
taining its  bodily  temperature,  for  muscular  work, 
for  the  digestion  of  food,  for  thinking,  even. 


48 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Trans- 
formation 
of  Energy 


Use  of 
the  Energy 


Heat 
Losses  of 
the  Body 


All  forms  of  energy  are  easily  transformed  into 
heat.  For  example,  energy  from  the  sun  may  be 
stored  up  by  the  corn  plant  in  seed,  part  of  the  grain 
may  be  transferred  into  the  flesh  of  an  ox,  and  the 
meat  consumed  by  man  as  food.  Through  the  energy 
of  this  food  a  man  may  carry  a  stone  up  a  mountain. 
In  rolling  down  the  mountain  side,  the  energy  of 
position  of  the  stone  is  changed  into  heat  through 
friction.  Thus  the  energy  stored  up  from  the  light 
and  heat  rays  of  the  sun,  through  a  devious  path, 
is  changed  again  into  heat.  The  scientists  suppose 
that  the  ultimate  end  of  all  forms  of  energy  will  be 
"uniformity  diffused  heat. "  The  part  that  each  one 
of  us  has  to  play  in  this  mighty  cycle  is  to  make  the 
best  possible  use  of  the  energy  given  him  to  trans- 
form. 

Of  the  energy  supplied  to  the  body  in  food,  only 
about  20  per  cent  can  be  used  for  external  work,  as 
in  walking,  the  lifting  of  weights,  or  riding  a  bicycle. 
The  remainder  leaves  the  body  as  heat.  Some  of 
the  energy  leaving  the  body  as  heat  is  first  used  in 
internal  work,  i.e.,  in  circulating  the  blood,  in  the 
digestion  of  food,  etc.  By  far  the  largest  part  of 
the  energy  is  expended  in  maintaining  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  deter- 
mined, in  the  respiration  calorimeter,  the  outgo  of 
energy  from  the  human  body  under  various  condi- 
tions.    (See  Food  and  Dietetics,  pages  32-52.)     The 


ENERGY  OF  THE  BODY  49 

results  for  an  average  sized  man  per  hour  are  given  as 
follows : 

HOURLY   OUTGO 

Average  (154  lbs.)     Carbon  Dioxide  (gms.)  Calories  Foot  Tons 
Man  at  rest  (asleep)  ....      25                       65  100 

Sitting  up  (awake) 35  100  .    154 

Light  exercise 55  170  262 

Moderate  exercise 100  290  447 

Severe  exercise 150  450  694 

Very  severe  exercise.  ...    210  600  926 

Note.  —  A  calory  is  the  qantity  of  heat  required  to  increase 
the  temperature  of  1  kilogram  of  water  i°  Centigrade  (or 
about  a  pound  of  water  40  F.)  .This  is  equivalent  in  mechan- 
ical energy  to  about  1.54  foot-tons.  A  foot-ton  is  the  energy 
required  to  lift  one  ton  a  foot  high  against  gravity. 

With  body  weight  greater  or  less  than  154  pounds,  the  energy 
outgo  would  proportionally  be  greater  or  less,  disregarding 
unusual  fat. 

The  efficiency  of  the  body  in  performing  external  Effic^enc0*1 
work  varies  greatly  in  different  individuals  and  at  of  the  Body 
different  times.  Some  persons  may  be  capable  of 
doing  twice  as  much  work  as  others  on  the  same 
amount  of  food.  A  tall,  thin  person  loses  more  heat 
(and  so  energy),  proportionally,  than  one  with  a 
more  compact  body,  because  of  the  greater  skin 
surface  compared  to  weight.  When  all  the  organs 
are  in  perfect  condition,  the  efficiency  of  the  body 
is  high.  Indeed,  the  mechanical  efficiency  of  the 
well-trained  body  is  higher  than  that  of  most  ma- 
chines—  a  locomotive  for  instance  can  use  only 
about  one-tenth  of  the  energy  supplied  to  it  in  coal. 

But  muscular  efficiency  is  not  the  highest  human 
efficiency;  mental  efficiency  is  of  a  higher  order. 
This,  too,  depends  upon  the  proper  workings  of  all 


50 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Work  of 
the  Organs 


■Work  of  the 

Nervous 

System 


parts  of  the  machine — on  right  living.  Although 
the  human  body  is  a  machine — a  self  repairing  auto- 
mobile— it  is  dominated  by  the  mind,  and  has  imagin- 
ation as  well  as  reasoning  powers.  So  in  considering 
the  body  as  a  machine,  we  must  not  forget  that 
mental  conditions  may  make  mechanical  rules  false. 

The  organs  of  the  body  which  convert  food  into 
nutriment  are  the  alimentary.  Those  which  convey 
this  nutritious  material  to  all  parts  of  the  machine 
are  the  circulatory,  and  those  which  eliminate  waste 
matters  are  the  excretory.  The  respiratory  organs 
play  a  double  part,  being  both  eliminators  of  waste 
and  importers  of  the  most  necessary  factor  in  all 
this  process— OXYGEN. 

All  this  intricate  machiney,  however,  would  be 
of  little  value  without  the  engineer.  The  machine 
would  stand  idle  and  rust  away  without  the  co-ordi- 
nating action  of  the  nervous  system.  The  nervous 
system  stands  as  does  the  engineer  regulating  the 
functions  of  the  organs,  demanding  food  for  the 
machine,  discriminating  in  kinds  and  amounts.  It 
guides  the  muscles,  directs  the  digestion  of  food, 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the  excretory  and  res- 
piratory processes.  All  these  processes  are  depend- 
ent upon  the  normal  healthy  condition  of  the  ner- 
vous system,  which  is,  therefore,  of  paramount  im- 
portance. Yet,  this  is  intimately  related  with  the 
healthy  condition  and  normal  action  of  every  organ 
of  the  living  machine,  and,  as  we  know,  the  over 
lord  of  the  nervous  system  is  the  brain,  the  mind. 


DIGESTION  OF  FOOD 


The  function  of  digestion  is  to  render  food  solu- 
ble and  capable  of  being  absorbed  into  the  blood, 
and  thus  brought  to  all  the  cells  of  the  body. 

The  ailmentary  canal  is  lined  throughout  with 
mucous  membrane,  which  is  much  modified  in  parts. 
It  is  supplied  with  two  layers  of  muscles  (the  stom- 
ach three)  and  covered  with  the  serous  membrane, 
which  serves  as  protection,  and  for  lubrication. 

Mastication  is  the  only  voluntary  part'  of  diges- 
tion, and  that  doubtless  would  be  better  performed 
if  it  was  not  under  the  control  of  the  will.  As  the 
time  of  solution  is  dependent  on  the  fineness  of  the 
particles  to  be  dissolved,  mastication  is  an  import- 
ant part  of  digestion.  It  is  only  necessary  to  note 
the  difference  in  time  required  to  dissolve  large  and 
fine  crystal  in  water  to  appreciate  this  fact.  The 
time  of  complete  solution  is  dependent  on  the  size  of 
the  largest  crystal  or  mass. 

During  mastication  food  is  moistened  with  saliva, 
which  is  secreted  by  three  sets  of  salivary  glands — 
the  parotid  in  the  cheek,  the  sub-maxillary  at  the  side 
of  the  tongue,  and  the  sublingual  under  the  tongue. 

The  quantity  and  composition  of  the  secretion 
varies  with  the  character  of  the  food  being  eaten. 
With  dry  food  the  flow  is  abundant,  and  the  saliva 
contains  the  ferment  ptyalin,  which  is  capable  of 
changing  cooked  starch  into  maltose  and  dextrine. 

51 


Mastication 


Saliva 


52 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Enzymes 
or 

Ferments 


Salivary 
Digestion 


These  ferments  or  enzymes  are  very  important 
in  affecting  chemical  transformations  of  both  animal 
and  vegetable  life.  Their  action  is  similar  to  that  of 
so-called  "catalytic"  bodies — substances  which  by 
their  presence  bring  about,  or  greatly  hasten,  chemi- 
cal changes,  but  which,  apparently,  do  not  enter 
into  the  chemical  actions  themselves.  A  familiar 
example  of  catalysis  is  the  changing  of  starch  into 
glucose  by  boiling  it  for  some  time  with  a  small 
amount  of  acid.  There  is  just  as  much  acid  at  the 
end  of  the  action  as  at  the  beginning,  and  if  it  could 
be  extracted  and  used  over  and  over  again,  an  in- 
finite amount  of  starch  might  be  transformed  into 
glucose  with  a  very  small  amount  of  acid.  Now, 
if  the  acid  had  acted  on  an  alkali,  certain  metals  or 
oxides,  it  would  combine  with  it  and  the  acid 
would  no  longer  exist  as  acid.  It  is  thus  apparent 
that  the  action  in  catalysis  is  quite  different  from 
the  more  common  chemical  action.  Moreover,  it 
is  clear  that  calalysis  is  a  most  economical  means  of 
effecting  chemical  change. 

A  large  quantity  of  an  enzyme  will  make  the  action 
more  rapid  than  a  smaller  amount,  but  the  small 
amount  would  do  the  work  if  given  sufficient  time. 
The  action  of  the  enzymes  is  specific,  that  is,  one 
kind  of  ferment  affects  only  one  kind  of  a  chemical 
change. 

To  return  to  salivary  digestion.  The  saliva  is 
slightly  alkaline  in  reaction  and  ptyalin  cannot  work 


DIGESTION 


53 


in  an  acid  medium.  As  the  stomach  secretions  are 
acid,  it  was  formerly  thought  that  salivary  diges- 
tion was  of  little  importance,  but  it  is  now  known  that 
the  food  may  remain  in  the  large  end  of  the  stomach 
for  an  hour  or  more  before  it  becomes  acid,  and  so 
the  digestion  of  the  starch  begun  in  the  mouth  may 
continue  in  the  stomach. 

The  saliva  also  dissolves  part  of  dry  food,  giving 
it  taste,  and  as  we  shall  see  later,  the  sense  of  taste 
has  a  marked  effect  on  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juices. 

The  secretion  of  saliva  is  controlled  by  the  ner- 
vous system,  the  higher  nerve  centers  having  con- 
siderable effect,  for  it  is  an  every-day  experience 
that  the  sight,  the  smell,  or  even  the  thought  of 
savory  food  may  "make  the  mouth  water. "  On 
the  other  hand,  strong  emotion  or  fear  may  stop 
the  secretions  and  the  mouth  becomes  dry. 

When  dry  food  is  taken  into  the  mouth,  the  saliva 
is  rich  in  ptyalin,  which  comes  most  abundantly 
from  the  parotid  glands.  If  the  food  contains 
much  water,  the  secretion  is  meager  and  contains 
little  of  the  starch  converting  ferment.  This  indi- 
cates that  starchy  food,  such  as  bread,  will  have  a 
better  chance  to  be  thoroughly  digested  if  eaten  dry. 
While  the  various  actions  in  digestion  support  one 
another,  still  it  is  important  that  each  stage  be  com- 
plete for  perfect  digestion. 

Mastication  and  insalivation  have  long  been  recog- 
nized as  impotant.     The  Gladstone  rule  of  twenty- 


Secretion 
of  Saliva 


Ptyalin 


54  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

five  chews  to  each  mouthful  of  food  is  familiar,  and 
more  recently,  Fletcher  and  his  followers  have 
claimed  that  most  of  the  ills  which  flesh  is  heir  to 
may  be  corrected  by  long  continued  mastication. 
While  "  Fletcherizing "  may  not  accomplish  all  that 
is  claimed  for  it,  yet  the  necessity  for  thorough  mas- 
tication can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  Rapid  eat- 
ing usually  means  overeating,  for  it  has  been  shown 
conclusively  that  when  food  is  eaten  slowly  and 
masticated  thoroughly,  a  less  quantity  is  demanded 
by  the  appetite.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  at  least  one- 
half  of  the  digestive  disturbances  common  to  the 
American  people  result  from  the  "bolting"  of  food. 

The  saliva  also  contains  mucin,  the  constituent 
which  gives  it  the  ropy  appearance.  This  helps  to 
lubricate  the  food  and  make  the  act  of  swallowing 
easy.  In  swallowing,  the  food  passes  over  the  trachea, 
which  is  closed  by  the  epiglottis.  The  opening  to 
the  nasal  space  is  closed  by  the  soft  palate.  The 
food  reaches  the  stomach  through  the  oesophagus. 
The  The  stomach  is  a  muscle  covered,  pear-shaped 
sac  situated  under  the  diaphragm,  with  the  large  end 
towards  the  heart.  The  oesophagus  entrance,  called 
the  cardia,  is  closed  by  a  circular  muscle,  and  the 
outlet  into  the  small  intestines  is  guarded  in  a  similar 
manner  by  the  pylorus.  When  fully  distended,  the 
stomach  holds  from  three  to  five  pints,  but  when  not 
occupied  by  food  it  is  collapsed. 

The  herbivorous  animals  have  two  stomachs,  one 


DIGESTION  55 

chiefly  for  storage  and  the  other  in  which  more  active 
digestion  is  carried  on.  In  the  same  way,  the  human 
stomach  is  divided  into  a  comparatively  inactive  and 
an  active  part.  The  pyloric  end  is  the  part  chiefly 
concerned  in  movement  and  digestion,  the  larger 
end,  called  the  fundus,  serving  to  hold  the  food  and 
make  meals  possible. 


Duodeum 


Pylor-us  ■ 

Pyloric  part  of  •Stomach- 

,  ■Fvm-dvtS 
Transverse  band- 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  STOMACH 
(After  Howell.) 


The  stomach  is  lined  with  numerous  glands,  which     Gastric 


secrete  the  ferments,  pepsin,  rennin,  and  may  be  other 
ferments  and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  pepsin  glands 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  lining,  but  the  glands 
which  secrete  hydrochloric  acid  occur  chiefly  in 
the  central  portion  of  the  stomach.  The  pepsin, 
in  an  acid  medium,  digests  the  proteids  of  food  (the 
lean  of  meat  and  fish,  albumen,  casein  of  milk,  gluten 
of  wheat,  legumin  of  beans  and  peas,  etc.),  changing 


Juices 


56 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Movements 
of  the 

Stomach 


Control  of 

Gastric 

Secretions 


them  into  peptones  or  peptoses,  which  are  soluble. 
The  connecting  tissues,  which  hold  the  globules  of 
animal  fats,  are  dissolved,  and  fats,  which  at  bodily 
temperature  are  in  a  liquid  state,  are  liberated.  It 
was  formerly  thought  that  the  fats  were  not  digested 
at  all  in  the  stomach,  but  recent  experiments  show 
that  finely  divided  fats — emulsions,  like  milk  and 
the  fats  in  the  yolk  of  egg,  are  digested  to  some  ex- 
tent. 

Beyond  the  coagulation  of  milk,  the  action  of 
rennin  is  not  known. 

In  the  pyloric  end  of  the  stomach,  wave-like  con- 
tractions take  place — in  the  human  stomach  once 
every  2  or  3  minutes.  This  mixes  the  food  with  the 
gastric  juices,  and  helps  to  liquefy  it.  As  the  food 
reaches  a  semi-liquid  condition  of  about  the  consist- 
ency of  pea  soup,  the  pylorus  opens  from  time  to 
time  and  small  jets  of  the  liquefied  and  partially  di- 
gested food  enter  the  small  intestine.  The  large 
end  of  the  stomach  exerts  a  steady  pressure  on  the 
food  so  that  the  active  end  is  given  a  new  supply. 
When  the  entire  contents  of  the  stomach  becomes 
acid,  the  digestion  of  starch  for  the  time  being  ceases. 
The  whole  process  of  stomach  digestion  occupies  from 
three  to  six  hours,  after  which  time  the  pylorus 
opens  and  allows  any  insoluble  substance  remain- 
ing to  pass  into  the  intestines. 

The  cause  of  the  flow  of  the  gastric  juices  is  an 
important  consideration.     Formerly  it  was  thought 


DIGESTION 


V 


that  the  mere  presence  of  food  in  the  stomach  was 
sufficient  to  bring  about  the  necessary  secretions, 
but  by  means  of  some  wonderfully  ingenious  experi- 
ments on  dogs,  the  Russian  physiologist,  Pawlow 
(Pav-lov),  has  proved  that  this  is  not  so.  He  intro- 
duced easily  digested  food,  like  egg  albumen,  into 
the  stomach  of  a  sleeping  dog  and  found  that  it  re- 
mained unacted  on  for  hours,  even  after  the  dog  was 
awakened.  He  stimulated  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
mechanically  in  every  possible  way,  and  showed  that 
no  secretion  followed.  When,  however,  a  hungry  dog 
was  even  shown  a  piece  of  meat,  after  a  waiting  period 
of  about  five  minutes,  the  gastric  juices  began  to  flow 
abundantly.  The  smell  or  the  eating  of  foods  by  a 
hungry  dog  always  produced  active  secretions,  even 
though  the  food  did  not  reach  the  stomach.  The 
flow  was  in  proportion  to  the  desire;  that  is,  greater 
when  the  dog  was  hungry  and  greater  for  well-liked 
foods.  This  secretion  Pawlow  called  the  "appetite 
juices,"  or  the  "psychic  juices." 

Only  a  very  few  substances  were  found  to  stimu- 
late the  secretion  through  their  chemical  composition 
—  the  most  active  being  extracts  of  flesh,  and  to 
some  extent  water  and  milk,  and  gelatine  slightly. 
The  secretion  brought  about  chemically  was  not 
nearly  so  great  in  amount  or  so  long  continued  as 
that  stimulated  by  the  appetite  through  senses  of 
taste  and  smell. 

These   psychic  juices,   once   started,   are   in   quite 


Appetite 
or  Psychic 
Juices 


Chemical 
Excitants 


58 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Composition 

of  Psychic 

Juices 


Importance 
of  Appetite 


large  amount,  increasing  for  an  hour  or  so,  and  then 
diminishing.  Pawlow  found  that  after  the  psychic 
juices  begin  to  digest  the  food,  the  substances  formed 
caused  an  increased  quantity  of  secretion,  the  com- 
position depending  upon  the  character  of  the  food 
being  digested  —  proteid  food  causing  an  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  pepsin,  starch  being  without  effect, 
and  fats  decreasing  the  amount  somewhat. 

Moreover,  he  found  that  on  a  given  diet  the  psychic 
juices  were  always  of  about  the  same  composition — 
a  composition  suitable  for  the  food  being  eaten,  that 
is,  on  a  meat  diet  the  secretion  of  pepsin  was  more 
abundant  than  on  a  bread  and  milk  diet. 

On  changing,  say,  from  a  meat  diet  to  a  bread  and 
milk  diet,  the  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
psychic  juices  was  a  gradual  one.  This  indicates 
that  a  radical  change  of  diet  should  only  be  made 
gradually. 

These  epoch-making  discoveries  emphasize  the 
importance  of  appetite.  Its  importance  has  long 
been  known  from  the  experiences. 

"Now,  good  digestion  wait  on  appetite,  and  health 
on  both!" — Macbeth. 

Pawlow's  work,  however,  proved  that  former  ex- 
periments which  seemed  to  show  that  the  flow  of 
the  gastric  juices  was  excited  mechanically  were 
incorrect.  This  error  led  to  the  practice  of  paying 
chief  attention  to  ease  of  digestion  in  selecting  foods 
when  there  was  digestive  disturbance.     While  digesti- 


DIGESTION 


59 


bility  must  be  considered  in  such  cases,  it  is  not 
enough  to  take  the  easily  digested  foods,  for  even 
they  might  not  be  properly  digested  unless  eaten 
with  enjoyment.  Food,  then,  should  be  appetizing, 
it  should  be  taken  slowly  and  tasted  to  the  utmost,  it 
should  be  eaten  under  agreeable  conditions  and  the 
mind  should  not  be  so  occupied  with  other  matters 
that  the  food  is  swallowed  almost  unconsciously. 

The  food  leaves  the  stomach,  a  small  part  at 
a  time,  in  a  semi-fluid,  partly-digested  condition. 
The  starch  has  been  partly  changed  into  maltose  and 
dextrin,  the  proteids  into  peptones,  the  connecting 
tissues  dissolved,  the  fats  liquefied  and  finely  divi- 
ded. The  process  has  been  mainly  a  preparatory 
one. 

Although  there  is  some  absorption  in  the  stomach, 
it  is  of  minor  importance.  Alcohol,  some  salts  and 
some  drugs  are  rather  quickly  absorbed  there  and 
enter  the  circulation. 

The  most  important  part  of  digestion  takes  place 
in  the  small  intestine.  This  is  a  tube  from  20  to  25 
feet  long  and  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  is 
lined  throughout  with  glands,  and  has  a  muscular 
covering,  which  keeps  the  contents  constantly  in 
motion. 

The  movements  of  the  small  intestines  are  of  two 
kinds — one  which  mixes  the  contents  and  the  other 
which  moves  the  contents  forward.  These  move- 
ments may  be  illustrated  as  follows:     Fill  a  rubber 


Products 
of  Stomach 
Digestion 


Digestion 

in  the  Small 
Intestine 


6o 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


tube  with  water  and  tie  both  ends.  With  the  fore 
fingers  of  each  hand  curved  around  the  tube,  press 
slowly  and  alternately,  first  with  one  hand  and  then 
with  the  other.  This  gives  a  backward  and  forward 
movement.  Multiply  this  arrangement  a  few  hun- 
dred times  and  the  condition  in  the  intestine  is  ex- 
emplified.    Now   run   one    finger   slowly    along   the 


MOVEMENTS  OP  THE  SMALL  INTESTINES 

A,  First  position.    B,  Second  position.    Alternate  movements  give  the 
backward  and  forward  movement  of  the  contents. 


Intestinal 
Ferments 


whole  length  of  the  tube;    this  gives  the  forward 
movement  called  peristalsis. 

The  first  portion  of  the  small  intestine  leading 
from  the  stomach,  is  called  the  duodenum.  Near 
its  beginning  enter  the  secretions  of  the  pancreas — 
the  most  important  digestive  fluid  of  the  body. 
This  is  strongly  alkaline  and  yields  at  least  three 
ferments,  (i)  Trypsin,  which  changes  the  proteids 
into  peptones  and  these  into  simpler  substances  con- 
taining nitrogen,  and  others  which  do  not  contain 
nitrogen.  It  is  much  more  active  than  the  pepsin 
of  the  gastric  juices,  except  in  dissolving  connecting 


DIGESTION  61 

tissue.  (2).  Lipase,  a  fat  splitting  ferment  which 
separates  the  fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerine. 
(3)  Amylopsin,  much  like  the  ptyalin  of  the  saliva, 
which,  like  it,  changes  starch  into  maltose  and  dex- 
trin, but  much  more  actively.  Rennin  is  secreted, 
also. 

Very  near  the  entrance  of  the  pancreas  is  a  duct,  The  Bile 
which  brings  a  fluid  secreted  by  the  liver — the  bile. 
This  is  in  part  a  waste  product  from  the  blood.  It 
is  stored  in  the  gall  bladder  until  needed  for  digestion. 
The  bile  increases  the  power  of  the  fat  splitting  fer- 
ment of  the  pancreas,  and  helps  to  dissolve  some  of 
the  soaps  formed  when  the  fatty  acids  combine  with 
the  sodium  carbonate  in  the  alkaline  juices. 

The  glands  in  the  walls  of  the  small  intestine  intestinal 
itself  give  a  secretion  which  contains  a  number  of  fer- 
ments, one  of  which  Pawlow  has  called  a  "ferment 
of  ferments."  This  greatly  increases  the  activity 
of  the  proteid  ferment  in  the  pancreatic  juice.  An- 
other of  the  ferments  converts  the  maltose  and  dex- 
trin formed  from  starch  into  dextrose.  Two  others 
change  cane  sugar  into  dextrose  and  levulose  and 
milk  sugar  into  dextrose  and  galactose.  It  is  nec- 
essary for  the  carbohydrates  to  be  converted  into 
simple  sugars  to  be  useful  in  nutrition.  Still 
another  ferment  acts  on  the  peptones,  changing  them 
into  simpler  bodies. 

The  intestinal  secretions  also  contain  a  very  inter- 
esting substance  which,  when  acted  upon  by  the  acids 


Secretions 


62  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

of  the  gastric  juice,  forms  a  substance  which  enters 
the  blood  and  stimulates  the  secretions  of  the  pan- 
creas, and  possibly  the  bile.  Thus,  indirectly,  the 
regularity  of  digestion  and  expulsion  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomach  controls  the  secretion  of  the  very  im- 
portant pancreatic  juices. 
Absorption  Active  absorption  takes  place  in  the  small  intes- 
tine. The  surface  is  very  greatly  increased  by  minute 
filaments  called  villi.  Each  contains  blood  vessels 
and  a  lacteal.  The  digestive  products  of  proteids 
and  carbohydrates  are  absorbed  into  these  blood 
vessels  and  the  fatty  acids  and  soaps  by  the  lacteals. 
The  veins  of  the  villi  enter  the  portal  vein,  which 
passes  to  the  liver,  where  the  products  of  digestion 
undergo  further  changes  before  entering  the  general 
circulation.  The  liver  converts  a  portion  of  the  sugar 
into  glycogen,  storing  it  for  future  use  and  maintain- 
ing a  constant  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  blood. 
The  products  of  the  fats — soaps  and  fatty  acids,  ab- 
sorbed by  the  lacteals,  are  to  a  large  extent  imme- 
diately made  into  fats  in  the  walls  of  the  intestine. 
The  lacteals  unite  into  larger  vessels,  which  finally 
combine  into  the  thoracic  duct,  from  whence  the  fats 
pass  into  the  general  circulation  near  the  heart. 

How  and  why  absorption  takes  place  in  this  man- 
ner is  beyond  present  knowledge.  Here,  as  else- 
where in  the  body,  substances  must  pass  through 
membranes.  There  are  no  holes.  The  living  cells 
have  the  power  of  selective  absorption  and  control 


DIGESTION 


63 


sierA 


Av& 


•Thoracic' 
Ductj 


the  process,  although  the  physical  laws  of  diffusion 
and  osmosis  must  operate  to  some  extent. 

The  entrance  into  the  large  intestine  is  guarded 
by  a  circular  valve.  The  large  intestine,  or  colon, 
is  about  five  feet  long  and  two 
inches  in  diameter.  It  is  di- 
vided into  an  ascending,  trans- 
verse and  descending  portion,, 
and  joins  the  rectum  by  the  sig- 
moid flexture.  The  movements 
of  the  large  intestine  are  some- 
what similar  to  those  of  the  small 
intestine,  but  less  frequent. 
No  enzymes  are  secreted  here, 
but  those  already  mixed  with 
the  food  continue  active.  A 
mucus-like  substance  is  secret- 
ed, which  serves  for  lubrication. 
The  food  entering  the  large 
intestine  is  of  about  the  same 
consistency  as  when  it  left  the 
stomach,  absorbtion  balancing 
secretion  in  the  small  intestine. 

Absorption  takes  place  more  actively  than  secre- 
tion in  the  large  intestine,  and  the  contents  gradually 
become  solid  and  are  expelled  into  the  rectum.  The 
nutriments  absorbed  take  the  same  course  as  from 
the  small  intestine,  the  fats  to  the  lacteals,  the 
sugars,  etc.,  to  the  portal  vein  and  liver. 


Diagram  of  the  Circulation 

from  the  Digestive 

Organs. 


Large 

Intestine 


Absorption 
in  the  Colon 


64 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Bacterial 
Action  in 
Digestion 


Bacteria 
Unnecessary 


The  action  of  bacteria  in  digestion  remains  to  be 
considered.  All  foods  contain  bacteria  —  some  in 
immense  number.  (See  Household  Bacteriology.) 
While  solid  food  is  being  stored  in  the  large  end  of 
the  stomach,  the  bacteria  act  on  the  carbohydrates 
to  some  extent,  but  cannot  affect  the  proteids  ordin- 
arily present  in  food.  If  stomach  digestion  is  unduly 
delayed,  carbon  dioxide  and  other  gases  may  be 
formed,  which  cause  belching  and  flatulence.  In 
normal  conditions,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  soon 
become  acid  from  the  hydrochloric  acid,  which  de- 
stroys nearly  all  kinds  of  bacteria  and  renders  the 
few  that  remain  inactive. 

The  contents  of  the  small  intestine  are  neutral, 
or  slightly  alkali,  and  fermentation  of  the  sugars  may 
take  place,  also  putrid  fermentation  of  the  peptones, 
unless  they  are  absorbed  promptly.  Conditions  in 
the  large  intestine  are  favorable  for  the  growth  of 
bacteria  and  putrefaction  of  proteid  materials  goes 
on.  Substances  are  formed  which,  if  absorbed  in 
small  quantity,  are  disposed  of  in  the  liver  and 
promptly  secreted  in  the  urine.  If,  however,  there 
is  much  undigested  or  unabsorbed  nitrogenous  ma- 
terial, or  if  it  remains  for  too  long  a  time,  toxines 
may  be  formed  which,  entering  the  blood,  cause 
headache,  and  the  condition  conveniently  termed 
"bilious." 

The  statement  has  been  made  that  the  action  of 
bacteria  is  necessary  for  digestion,  but  this  is  prob- 


DIGESTION  65 

ably  incorrect,  for  some  of  the  animals  of  the  arctic 
regions  have  no  bacteria  in  the  intestines.  It  is 
possible  that  certain  bacteria  may  act  on  cellulose, 
which  the  digestive  juices  of  man  are  not  able  to 
affect,  and  render  some  of  it  digestible.  Bacteria 
are  always  present  in  both  the  small  and  large  intes- 
tines, but  in  the  conditions  of  health  they  do  no  harm. 


THE  BLOOD 


Composition 
of  the  Blood 


Plasma 

and 

Corpuscles 


"White 
Corpuscles 


The  digestion  of  food  keeps  the  blood  supplied 
with  materials  used  by  the  body  for  heat  and  energy, 
for  repair,  and  for  building.  All  the  substances 
needed  by  the  body  for  this  work  are  contained  in  it. 
In  addition,  nearly  all  the  waste  products,  gases  and 
solids,  form  a  part  of  the  blood  on  their  way  to  the 
organs  of  elimination.  It  is  apparent  that  the  com- 
position of  the  blood  must  be  very  complex. 

Under  the  microscope  the  blood  is  seen  to  consist 
of  a  nearly  colorless  fluid  called  the  plasma  and  numer- 
ous corpuscles,  the  red  and  white.  A  drop  of  blood 
contains  about  500  million  red  corpuscles  and  500 
thousand  of  the  white  corpuscles.  The  red  corpus- 
cles are  concave  discs  and  contain  a  substance — 
hemoglobulin  —  which  gives  the  red  color  to  the 
blood.  With  this  substance  oxygen  forms  a  loose 
combination  and  the  function  of  the  red  corpuscles 
is  to  carry  the  oxgyen  absorbed  in  the  lungs  to  each 
and  every  cell,  to  be  used  in  combining  with  the  nu- 
trients of  food  and  yield  the  energy  necessary  for 
cellular  activity.  The  red  corpuscles  are  formed 
in  red  bone  marrow. 

The  white  corpuscles  are  not  all  alike,  but  may  be 
roughly  classed  as  the  leucocytes  and  the  lympho- 
cytes. The  leucocytes  are  formed  chiefly  in  the 
white  marrow  of  the  bones.  They,  like  the  amoeba, 
have  the  power  of  independent  movement,  and  can 

66 


THE  BLOOD 


67 


even  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  and  move 
between  the  cells.  They  repel  or  destroy  bacteria 
or  other  foreign  bodies,  which  may  be  introduced 
among  the  cells.  The  lymphocytes  are  formed  in 
the    lymph    glands    and    perhaps    in    the     spleen. 


Red 


BLOOD  CORPUSCLES 


They  are  thought  to  aid  in  the  absorption  of  fats  and 
peptones,  and  help  in  the  coagulation  of  the  blood. 

The  blood  also  contains  very  minute  bodies  called 
the  blood  plates.  These  are  about  one-tenth  the 
size  of  the  red  corpuscles.  It  is  thought  that  they 
aid  in  the  coagulation  of  blood,  beyond  which  their 
function  is  unknown. 

The  blood  equals  about  rV  the  weight  of  the  body 
—  about  twelve  pints  in  volume.  The  plasma  con- 
tains 90  per  cent  water,    7   or  8  per  cent  proteid 


Blood 
Plates 


Gland 


68  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

material,  o.i  to  0.2  per  cent  of  sugar,  a  smaller  quan- 
tity of  fat,  mineral  salts,  and  a  very  great  many 
other  substances  which,  though  small  in  proportion, 
are  vitally  necessary  to  the  body. 
Ductless  Among  the  substances  present  in  the  blood  in 
minute  quantities  are  the  secretions  of  the  so-called 
ductless  glands.  The  thyroid  glands,  situated  in 
each  side  of  the  neck,  contribute  a  secretion  neces- 
sary for  nutrition.  Their  complete  removal  leads 
to  mental  and  physical  deterioration  and  usually  to 
death.  The  adrenal  bodies,  found  near  each  kidney, 
secrete  a  substance  necessary  to  maintain  muscular 
tone,  especially  of  the  muscles  in  the  walls  of  the  small 
arteries.  Death  results  from  their  removal.  There 
are  other  small  glands  which  also  produce  sub- 
stances necessary  for  health.  Numerous  small  bodies 
imbedded  in  the  pancreas  add  to  the  blood  an  inter- 
nal secretion  absolutely  necessary  for  the  oxydation  of 
sugar  in  the  cells  of  the  muscles  and  glands. 

THE  CIRCULATION 

The  blood  is  the  connecting  medium  between  all 
the  organs  of  the  body.  The  circulatory  apparatus 
consists  of  the  heart,  arteries,  capillaries,  veins  and 
lymphatics.  The  large  arteries  from  the  heart  divide 
and  subdivide  until  they  become  capillaries  in  the 
tissues.  These  are  so  numerous  that  a  needle  can- 
not be  inserted  anywhere  in  the  flesh  without  pierc- 
ing some.     The  capillaries  unite  into  the  veins  which 


THE  CIRCULATION 


69 


carry  the  greater  part  of  the  plasma  and  all  of  the 
red  corpuscles  back  to  the  heart. 

Part  of  the  plasma  passes  through  the  thin  walls 
of  the  capillaries  and  actually  surrounds  the  cells. 
Here  it  is  called  lymph.  Each 
cell  of  the  body  is  bathed  in 
lymph.  The  lymph,  then,  con- 
sists of  blood  minus  the  cor- 
puscles and  plus  the  products 
of  cellular  activity,  which  natu- 
rally varies  with  the  kind  of  cells. 
The  lymph  between  the  cells 
drains  back  towards  the  heart 
through  small  vessels  which  orig- 
inate blindly  in  the  tissues. 
These  lymphatics  unite  into 
larger  vessels  and  finally  empty 
into  the  right  lymphatic  and 
the  thoracic  duct,  which  pour 
their  contents  into  the  larger 
vein  near  the  heart.  Thus  the 
blood  leaves  the  heart  through 
the  arteries,  passes  through  the 
capillaries  and  returns  to  the  heart  through  the  veins 
and  lymphatics. 

The  heart  is  a  double  muscular  force  pump,  which 
keeps  the  life-giving  stream  of  the  blood  in  motion. 
Each  contraction  of  the  heart  forces  a  jet  of  blood 
from  one  side  through  the  arteries  leading  to  all  the 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CIR- 
CULATION. 

A.  Capillaries  of  the  di- 
gestive organs.  B.  Of  the 
liver.  C.  Type  of  various 
systems  of  capillaries  as  in 
the  leg,  kidneys,  brain, 
etc.  L.  The  lungs.  Dot- 
ted lines  represent  the 
lymphatics. 


Lymph 


The 
Heart 


70 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Rate  of 
Flow 


Nervous 

Control 

of  Heart 

Beats 


organs,  and  from  the  other  side  to  the  lungs.  This 
throb  or  "pulse"  can  be  most  conveniently  felt  at 
at  the  thumb  side  of  the  wrist. 

The  course  of  the  circulation  is  from  the  right  side 
of  the  heart  through  the  capillaries  of  the  lungs, 
back  to  the  heart,  and  from  the  heart  through  the 
arteries  to  the  capillaries  of  all  the  other  organs  of 
the  body,  and  back  to  the  heart  by  various  paths 
through  the  veins  and  lymphatics. 

The  walls  of  the  arteries  are  strong  and  elastic. 
The  pressure  of  the  heart -beat  dilates  them  and  their 
contraction  continues  to  force  the  blood  forward  be- 
tween heart  pulsations. 

The  flow  of  the  blood  is  very  rapid — about  twenty 
feet  a  second  in  the  arteries  and  large  veins,  but  slow 
in  the  capillaries.  The  time  required  for  a  particle 
of  blood  to  make  the  complete  circuit  of  the  body  is 
about  twenty-three  seconds,  on  the  average.  It 
naturally  takes  longer  for  the  blood  to  make  the  cir- 
cuit through  the  foot  than  through  organs  near  the 
heart. 

The  whole  volume  of  the  blood  passes  through 
the  organs  of  the  body,  the  kidneys  for  instance,  a 
number  of  thousand  times  a  day,  thus  bringing  a 
constant  supply  of  nutriment  and  rapidly  carrying 
away  wastes. 

The  heart  is  an  automatic  organ,  and  continues 
to  beat  when  supplied  with  blood  even  when  all  nerve 
connection  with  other  parts  of  the  body  is  severed. 


THE  CIRCULATION  71 


DIAGRAM  OP  THE  HEART,  LARGE  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS, 
SHOWING  KIDNEYS. 


72 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Distribution 

of  the 

Blood 

Supply 


Some  of  the  salts  in  the  blood  keep  up  the  action, 
probably  by  stimulating  nerves  in  the  heart  itself. 
It  also  has  two  sets  of  nerves  coming  from  the  cord 
and  from  the  back  of  the  brain.  One  set  of  nerves 
called  augmentor  nerves  or  accelerator  nerves,  in- 
creases the  rapidity  and  power  of  the  heart-beats; 
the  other  set  produces  the  opposite  effect,  decreas- 
ing the  rapidity  of  the  heart-beats.  These  are  inhib- 
itory nerves  and  their  action  is  called  "inhibition. " 

The  proportionate  supply  of  blood  which  each 
organ  of  the  body  receives  is  regulated  by  the  con- 
striction and  dilation  of  the  small  arteries.  The 
muscular  walls  of  the  arteries  are  supplied  with  two 
sets  of  nerves — the  vasco-constrictors  and  the  vasco- 
dilators.  When  an  organ  is  active,  the  arteries  dilate, 
giving  it  a  larger  supply  of  blood.  As  the  total  quan- 
tity of  blood  is  not  sufficient  to  give  all  the  organs 
the  maximum  quantity,  the  blood  supply  to  other 
organs  is  diminished.  This  fact  has  many  practical 
applications.  When  the  digestive  apparatus  is  active, 
some  of  the  blood  is  drawn  from  other  organs. 
If  a  heavy  meal  is  taken,  the  blood  supply  to  the 
brain  may  be  lessened,  and  drowsiness  result.  In 
hot  weather  much  blood  flows  to  the  skin,  and  mental 
work  is  more  difficult.  Active  muscular  exercise 
draws  blood  away  from  the  internal  organs,  so  vio- 
lent exercise  should  not  be  taken  directly  after  a 
heavy  meal,  for  the  stomach  will  not  receive  a  suffi- 
cient blood  supply  for  active  secretion.     If  the  sur- 


THE  CIRCULATION 


73 


face  of  the  body  is  cold,  the  blood  vessels  supplying 
the  skin  contract,  forcing  an  abundant  flow  of  blood 
through  the  brain,  under  which  condition  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  go  to  sleep. 

While  the  heart  is  the  chief  means  of  moving  the 
blood,  that  in  the  veins  and  especially  in  the  lym- 
phatics is  impelled  towards  the  heart  by  two  other 


Accessory 
Means  of 
Circulation 


A  B  C 

SECTIONS  OF  VEINS 
a.  Split  open  showing  Pocket  Valves.    6.   Valve  open.    c.  Valve  closed. 


means,  the  most  important  being  respiration.  At 
each  inspiration,  when  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs, 
there  is  at  the  same  time  a  suction  produced  in  the 
blood  vessels  and  lymphatics  of  the  chest.  The 
alternate  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen  would  simply  make  a  backward  and  for- 
ward movement  in  the  veins,  if  their  walls  were  per- 
fectly free,  but  the  veins  and  lymphatics  contain 
valves  which  allow  the  blood  to  flow  towards  the 
heart,   but  prevent   its   return.     In  the   same   way 


74 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


The  Blood 
and  Illness 


Anaemia 


periodic  contraction  and  hardening  of  the  muscles 
forces  the  blood  out  of  the  veins  towards  the  heart, 
and  the  valves  prevent  its  return;  thus  deep  breath- 
ing and  muscular  exercise  are  important  aids  to  a 
good  circulation  of  the  blood  and  lymph. 

The  very  intimate  relation  between  the  blood  and 
every  part  of  the  body  gives  it  a  large  share  in  all 
matters  of  health  and  sickness.  For  this  reason 
it  was  believed  for  a  long  time  that  disorders  of  the 
blood  were  the  cause  of  disease.  When  a  person  be- 
came sick,  it  was  thought  that  an  evil  spirit  or  some 
impurities  had  found  access  to  the  blood,  and  that 
a  cure  could  only  be  effected  by  removing  them, 
hence  the  custom  of  blood  letting,  practiced  for  many 
years.  Of  course,  this  treatment  served  only  to 
weaken  the  patient,  and  those  who  recovered  were 
cured  in  spite  of,  rather  than  because  of,  blood  let- 
ting. The  blood  itself  is  never  the  cause  of  illness, 
but  in  many  forms  of  disease,  particularly  the  chronic 
and  protracted  forms,  and  in  all  cases  of  general  de- 
bility, it  is  reduced  in  quantity  and  altered  in  quality. 
The  most  common  example  of  this  condition  is 
anaemia,  in  which  the  red  corpuscles  are  reduced 
in  number  and  their  ability  to  carry  oxygen  is  im- 
paired. 

The  cause  of  anaemia  is  generally  lack  of  muscular 
activity  and  fresh  air.  If  moderate  out-of-door  ex- 
ercise is  taken  every  day,  with  plenty  of  sleep,  the 
appetite  is  increased,  more  food  is  eaten  and  digested, 


RESPIRA  TION  75 

and  the  blood  is  gradually  restored  to  its  normal 
condition,  and  all  symptoms  of  weakness  disappear. 
The  old  idea  of  impurities  in  the  blood  still  sur- 
vives, and  is  the  foundation  for  the  belief  that  the 
blood  needs  to  be  purified  in  the  spring  by  taking 
purgatives  and  all  sorts  of  "spring  medicines." 
The  real  cause  of  lowered  vitality,  weakness  and 
"that  tired  feeling"  is  found  in  confinement  to  over- 
heated rooms,  late  hours,  too  much  food,  and  lack 
of  out-of-door  exercise  during  the  winter  months. 

RESPIRATION 

In  the  "running  of  the  machine"  we  have  con-  use  of 
sidered  how  the  blood  is  supplied  with  nutriment  Nutrition 
and  how  it  is  transported  to  the  cells,  but  for  cellu- 
lar activity  oxygen  is  as  necessary  as  nutriment.  A 
fire  cannot  be  kept  up  without  oxygen  any  more  than 
without  fuel.  Because  the  oxygen  of  the  air  is 
everywhere  present  and  invisible,  this  is  not  so  appar- 
ent. The  nutriments  are  useless  to  the  cells  with- 
out the  oxygen  to  combine  with  them,  and  through 
the  chemical  union  set  free  the  energy  necessary 
for  all  life  processes.  Oxygen  is  the  most  impera- 
tive requirement  of  the  body.  Food  may  be  with- 
held for  a  week  or  more  and  drink  for  days,  but  if 
we  are  deprived  of  oxgyen  for  but  a  brief  interval, 
life  is  extinguished. 

It  it  then  the  cells  which  use  the  oxygen,  the  lungs 
serving  only  to  absorb,  and  the  blood  to  transport  it. 


Respiratory 
Organs 


76 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


The  two  openings  of  the  nose  unite  above  the  back 
of  the  mouth  in  the  space  behind  the  soft  palate, 
called  the  nasopharynx.  The  nasal  space  is  a  high 
arched  dome,  having  the  roof  of  the  mouth  as  a  base. 
The   passages   are   divided   and   subdivided   into    a 


AIR  CELLS  OP  THE  LUNGS 
Redrawn  from  The  Human  Mechanism. 


labyrinth,  all  lined  with  mucous  membrane.  In  going 
through  these  passages  the  air  inhaled  is  warmed  to 
the  body  temperature,  and  for  the  most  part,  freed 
from  dust  and  accompanying  bacteria.  The  fine 
hairs  in  the  nostrils  strain  out  much  of  the  dust,  and 
the  remainder  is  caught  on  the  moist  surfaces.  Cer- 
tain ciliated  cells  propel  the  dust  towards  the  open- 
ings of  the  nose.  Through  the  larynx  the  air  passes 
to  the  trachea,  which  divides  into  two  branches  called 


RESPIRA  TION  77 

bronchi,  one  going  to  each  lung.  The  bronchi  di- 
vide and  subdivide,  terminating  ultimately  in  small 
air  sacs,  having  exceedingly  thin  walls  and  many  cap- 


X4~  V  IM- 

POSITION OF  THE  HEART  AND  LUNGS 

illaries.  Through  these  thin  walls  takes  place  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  plasma  and  red  corpus- 
cles and  the  elimination  of  carbon  dioxide  from  the 
plasma  to  the  air. 


78 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


The  Lungs  The  lungs  contain  normally  about  200  cubic  inches 
of  air.  In  ordinary  quiet  breathing  we  take  in  about 
30  cubic  inches  and  by  forced  inspiration  we  may 
take  in  an  additional  100  cubic  inches.  We  can 
expel  by  forced  expiration  about  half  the  contents 
of  the  lungs.  If  we  never  use  but  a  part  of  our 
lung  capacity,  the  more  distant  air  sacs  lose  tone  and 
may  become  closed.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
deep  breathing  is  necessary. 

Breathing  Inspiration  is  accomplished  by  the  muscles  of  the 

chest  and  the  diaphragm.  The  chest  muscles  in- 
crease the  depth  and  breadth  of  the  chest  by  lifting 
the  breast  bone  and  the  ribs.  The  diaphragm,  which 
is  a  thin  dome-shaped  muscle  forming  a  partition 
between  the  chest  and  abdomen,  flattens  out  to  some 
extent  and  increases  the  length  of  the  chest.  This  pro- 
duces a  partial  vacuum,  which  the  air  rushes  in  to  fill. 

The  proper  method  of  breathing  is  of  great  im- 
portance. With  men  whose  clothing  often  restricts 
the  chest  movements,  abdominal  or  diaphragmatic 
breathing  predominates.  With  women  upper  chest 
breathing  is  usually  made  necessary  by  the  restric- 
tion of  the  waist  from  corsets.  The  natural  method 
of  breathing  is  both  abdominal  and  intercostal. 
Adenoids  Growths  in  the  nose,  as  adenoids,  may  restrict  the 
free  passage  of  air  to  the  lungs  and  thus  make  mouth 
breathing  necessary.  Nature  intended  that  air 
should  be  taken  in  through  the  nose  and  any  inter- 
ference of  the  nasal  passages  should  be  remedied. 


RESPIRA  TION 


79 


It  is  a  common  expression  that  "  oxygen  purines  the 
blood."  It  is  true  that  the  carbon  dioxide,  water  and 
a  small  amount  of  other  waste  matter  are  eliminated 
during  expiration,  but  oxygen  in  uniting  with  the 
nutriments  of  food  in  reality  vitiates  the  blood. 

The  plasma  is  made  up  chiefly  of  water  which  has 
little  capacity  for  dissolving  oxygen  so  the  red  cor- 
puscles, with  their  hemoglobulen,  are  the  chief  trans- 
porters of  oxygen.  The  hemoglobulen  in  the  presence 
of  oxygen  forms  a  combination,  oxy-hemoglobulen. 
This,  when  it  reaches  the  cells  which  have  used  up  the 
oxygen  dissolved  in  the  lymph  surrounding  them, 
gives  up  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  to  the  surrounding 
plasma  and  lymph,  whence  it  is  absorbed  by  the 
cells.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lymph  and  plasma 
have  a  considerable  capacity  for  dissolving  carbon 
dioxide  and  quickly  absorb  that  product  formed 
when  the  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon  of  nutri- 
ments during  cellular  activity.  On  reaching  the 
lungs,  the  plasma  loses  a  portion,  but  not  all,  of  its 
carbon  dioxide.  Arterial  blood  still  contains  some 
carbon  dioxide  and  the  red  corpuscles  and  venous 
blood  still  contain  some  oxygen. 

Under  all  ordinary  conditions  the  blood  has  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  oxygen.  Deep  breathing,  or  muscular 
exercise,  or  even  increasing  the  proportion  of  oxygen 
in  the  air  does  not  cause  the  blood  to  absorb  more. 
The  value  of  deep  breathing  and  exercise  is  not  in 
giving  the  blood  more   oxygen,  but  in  making   the. 


Oxygen 
Carriers 


So 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Effect  of 

Impure 

Air 


circulation  more  rapid  by  increase  of  the  number  and 
power  of  the  heart  beats.  Exercise  is  about  the  only- 
natural  way  of  increasing  the  rapidity  of  the  blood 
stream,  thus  making  the  removal  of  all  waste  matter 
more  effectual.  Deep  breathing,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  important  in  keeping  the  lungs  in  good  condition 
and  in  helping  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the  veins 
and  lymphatics  to  the  heart. 

The  carbon  dioxide  in  expired  breath  is  not  in 
itself  poisonous,  and  recent  researches  have  seemed 
to  show  that  the  organic  matters  in  expired  air  are 
not  so  poisonous  as  formerly  supposed;  however, 
the  evil  effects  of  breathing  vitiated  air  are  painfully 
apparent.  The  harmful  effects  are  probably  in 
the  depressing  effect  on  the  nervous  system  rather 
than  in  actually  poisoning  the  tissues.  Every  one 
knows  the  effect  of  fresh,  out-of-doors  air.  We  need 
to  get  out  of  doors  every  day,  rain  or  shine,  for  as 
long  a  time  as  possible.  Man  was  intended  for  an 
out-of-doors  animal.  Certain  burrowing  animals, 
like  the  woodchuck,  may  be  able  to  thrive  on  impure 
air,  but  not  man  at  his  best.  Consumption  and 
pneumonia  are  essentially  house  diseases. 

The  necessity  of  providing  by  ventilation  a  constant 
supply  of  fresh  air  in  our  houses  and  especially  in 
sleeping  rooms  is  treated  in  Household  Hygiene,  and 
need  not  be  spoken  of  further.  In  the  winter,  good 
ventilation  adds  to  the  fuel  bill,  but  we  would  not 
knowingly  buy  food  containing  even  a  small  amount 


NUTRITION 


81 


of  harmful  substances  to  save  ten  or  even  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  cost.  Why,  then,  begrudge  the  money 
spent  for  the  more  important  necessity  of  the  body  — 
pure  air?  We  are  very  dainty  about  many  things, 
but  why  breathe  "second-hand  air  "  without  a  qualm  ? 

NUTRITION 

We  now  come  to  the  question  of  how  the  cells  of 
the  body  make  use  of  the  nutrients  of  food  and  oxygen 
brought  to  them  by  the  blood.  Much  is  known  as  to 
the  results  of  the  life  processes,  but  a  great  deal  yet 
remains  to  be  found  out  about  the  exact  process 
itself. 

Digestion,  absorption,  assimilation  —  the  building- 
up  process  is  called  anabolism,  the  destruction  of 
nutrients  and  breaking  down  of  tissues,  katabolism, 
and  both  processes  taken  together,  metabolism. 

Of  the  five  nutrients  —  water,  salts,  proteids,  car- 
bohydrates and  fats  —  water  and  salts  yield  little 
or  no  energy  to  the  body.     After  use  they  are  ex- 
creted in  much  the  same  form  as  they  were  absorbed. 
They  are,  however,  an  essential  part  of  all  living  cells. 

Without  the  bones,  the  body  is  made  up  of  over 
three-fourths  water,  the  fat  free  muscles  and  glands 
87  per  cent,  the  blood  nine-tenths.  Water  is  neces- 
sary in  all  life  processes  for  dissolving  substances, 
in  the  digestive  juices,  and  for  carrying  away  wastes. 
Water  is  lost  from  the  lungs,  and  skin,  but  more 
through  the  kidneys  —  a  total  of  about  three  pints 


Metabolism 


Nutrients 


■Water  in 
Nutrition 


82  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

daily  in  ordinary  weather  and  double  the  amount  in 
hot  weather.  The  loss  is  made  good  in  part  by  the 
oxydation  of  the  hydrogen,  contained  in  all  foods,  to 
water.  This  may  supply  about  a  pint  a  day.  The 
remainder  must  be  made  up  by  the  water  in  food  and 
by  the  drinking  of  water.  Water  is  especially  neces- 
sary if  the  diet  is  high  in  proteids  as  some  of  the 
products  of  proteid  disintegration  are  not  very  soluble. 
Except  in  rare  disease  conditions,  there  is  no  danger 
of  drinking  too  much  water,  but  there  is  grave  danger 
in  drinking  too  little, 
salts  in  Salts  form  a  part  of  all  living  matter,  vegetable 

Nutrition  .  ,    .  ....... 

and  animal.  The  chief  salts  present  m  the  body  are 
chlorides,  phosphates,  sulphates  and  carbonates  of 
sodium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron  with  some 
others.  Common  salt  —  sodium  chloride  —  is  the 
only  one  purposely  added  to  food,  chiefly  to  bring 
out  flavor.  There  seems  to  be  an  especial  craving 
for  it  if  the  diet  is  largely  made  up  of  vegetables. 
We  habitually  use  more  salt  than  is  needed  by  the 
body.  The  excess  is  secreted  in  the  urine  for  the 
most  part  but  the  sweat  and  tears  contain  a  little. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  of  the  gastric  juices  is  made 
chiefly  from  sodium  chloride,  the  sodium  part  of  the 
salt  serving  to  form  the  carbonate  of  soda  of  the 
pancreatic  and  intestinal  secretions. 

In  addition  to  bone  formation,  the  calcium  salts 
are  necessary  for  the  coagulation  of  the  blood  and 
the  clotting  of  milk,  and  with  common  salt  and  potas- 


NUTRITION 


83 


sium  chloride  in  the  blood,  they  keep  up  the  regular 
beat  of  the  heart. 

Iron  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  hemoglobulen  of  the 
red  corpuscles.  Nearly  all  vegetables  contain  iron, 
but  spinach  has  an  especially  large  proportion  of  it. 
Meats  and  the  yolk  of  egg  contain  a  considerable 
amount. 

In  any  ordinary  diet  the  body  receives  a  sufficient 
supply  of  the  salts.  Some  of  them  must  be  present 
in  organic  compounds  to  be  of  use. 

The  three  remaining  nutrients,  proteids,  carbohy- 
drates and  fats,  all  contain  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  but  the  proteids  also  always  contain  nitrogen 
and  sulphur  and  sometimes  phosphorus  and  iron. 
The  fats  have  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  oxygen 
so  they  can  combine  with  a  larger  amount.  For 
this  reason  they  yield  over  twice  as  much  heat  and 
energy  when  oxydized  as  the  carbohydrates  or 
proteids. 

As  the  living  cells  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
proteid  material,  except  for  water  and  a  small  amount 
of  salts,  it  is  apparent  that  the  body  must  have  food 
containing  nitrogen  and  sulphur  for  making  good  the 
loss  of  cell  substance  which  is  constantly  taking 
place  during  activity,  and  the  young  require  proteid 
material  for  the  growing  tissues.  It  has  been 
proved  many  times  that  without  proteid  food  all 
animals  starve,  even  if  there  is  an  abundance  of  the 
other  food  principles.     Moreover,  the  nitrogen  must 


Composition 
of  the 
Nutrients 


Use  of 
Proteid 
Foods 


84 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Liebig's 
Theory 


be  in  the  form  of  true  proteids  —  the  gelatinoids 
(often  called  albuminoids)  of  which  gelatine  is  a  type, 
and  the  extractives,  although  they  contain  nitrogen 
and  sulphur,  cannot  take  their  place.  On  the  other 
hand,  life  may  be  maintained  without  serious  trouble 
on  proteid  foods  alone,  showing  that  they  may 
furnish  heat  and  energy  as  well  as  repair  wastes. 

As  the  muscles  contain  such  a  large  proportion  of 
proteid,  Liebig  set  forth  the  theory  about  fifty  years 
ago  that  proteids  were  the  only  source  of  muscular 
energy.  It  has  since  been  conclusively  proved  by 
Voit  and  many  others  that  this  was  a  wrong  suppo- 
sition, and  that  heat  and  energy  may  be  supplied  by 
carbohydrates  and  fats  as  well  as  by  proteids. 

A  marked  difference  between  the  proteids  and  non- 
nitrogenous  foods  is  the  fact  that  the  nitrogenous 
part  of  proteids,  at  least,  is  eliminated  by  the  body 
as  fast  as  it  is  consumed;  that  is,  if  three  ounces  of 
proteid  is  consumed  daily,  nitrogen  equal  to  that  in 
three  ounces  of  proteid  is  eliminated.  If  the  proteid 
feed  be  increased  to  four  ounces  a  day,  the  nitrogen 
excreted  corresponds  to  four  ounces.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  body  will  maintain  this  "nitrogen 
equilibrium"  on  widely  varying  amounts  of  proteid 
in  the  diet,  provided  the  other  constituents  are  in 
sufficient  amount;  and  in  general  that  the  nitrogen 
excreted  is  irrespective  of  muscular  exercise  being 
taken.  This  does  not  hold  in  very  severe  exercise 
long   continued,    during   which    some    of   the   body 


NUTRITION 


85 


nitrogen  is  used,  more  being  eliminated  than  con- 
sumed. 

In  going  from  a  low  proteid  diet  to  a  high  proteid 
diet  there  is  at  first  a  small  apparent  storage  of  nitro- 
gen material.  This  is  lost,  however,  when  the  diet  is 
changed  back  to  one  lower  in  proteid.  The  body 
seems  to  have  little  power  of  storing  proteids.  If 
the  supply  is  deficient,  it  uses  its  own  body  proteids. 
In  starvation  and  in  certain  diseases  the  larger 
muscles  waste  away,  some  of  their  proteid  being 
used  to  repair  cells  more  necessary  for  life,  as  the 
cells  of  the  heart  muscles  and  nerve  cells,  and  som^ 
for  supplying  heat  and  energy. 

If  the  consumption  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  be 
increased,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  proportionate 
increase  of  their  waste  products,  but  an  increase  of 
muscular  exercise  markedly  increases  the  excretion  of 
carbon  dioxide  coming  from  the  carbon  of  food  prod- 
ucts.    See  page  49. 

When  more  food  is  eaten  and  absorbed  than  is 
needed  to  supply  energy  and  heat,  the  excess  is  stored 
as  glycogen  and  fat.  As  we  have  seen,  the  starches, 
sugars,  and  gums  are  changed  by  digestion  into 
dextrose,  or  other  simple  sugars,  and  as  such  abscrbed 
by  the  intestine,  passing  first  through  the  portal 
vein  to  the  liver  before  reaching  the  general  circu- 
lation. The  liver,  with  the  help  of  an  enzime,  changes 
a  portion  of  the  dextrose  into  glycogen  —  animal 
starch.     This  is  changed  back  again  into  sugar  as  it 


Elimination 
of  Carbon 
and  Hydogen 


Storage  of 

Food 

Materials 


86 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Use  of 
the  Fats 


Oxidization 

in  the 

Body 


How  the 
Cells  Use 
Nutrients 


is  needed  in  the  body,  a  constant  proportion  of  sugar 
in  the  blood  of  the  general  circulation  being  main- 
tained. Glycogen  is  also  stored  in  the  muscles  and 
some  of  the  other  tissues  of  the  body. 

Experiments  have  proved  beyond  a  doubt  that 
carbohydrates  in  excess  of  bodily  needs  may  be 
transformed  into  fat  and  stored  as  reserve  food  supply. 

The  fats  absorbed  by  the  lymphatics  are  used  at 
once  if  needed.  If  the  food  digested  and  absorbed  is 
in  excess  of  bodily  requirements,  fats  and  the  car- 
bohydrates transformed  into  fat  are  stored,  sometimes 
between  the  cells  themselves  but  usually  in  the  con- 
necting tissue,  especially  that  surrounding  the  abdom- 
inal organs  and  that  directly  beneath  the  skin. 

The  transformation  of  glycogen  into  sugar  is  a 
very  simple  one,  so  this  serves  as  an  immediate  reserve 
food  supply.  It  is  not  known  just  how  the  fats  are 
used,  but  they  are  taken  up  by  the  blood,  wherever 
they  are  stored,  and  transported  to  the  part  of  the 
body  needing  fuel. 

The  oxidation  of  the  sugar  by  the  cells  is  by  no 
means  a  simple  union  of  oxygen  with  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  forming  directly  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 
The  process  is  in  several  stages  governed  by  differ- 
ent enzimes.  It  is  stated  that  sugar  is  first  changed 
to  lactic  acid  and  this  to  alcohol,  which  is  finally 
oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  and  water. 

One  theory  is  that  the  nutriments  of  food  are  first 
built  into  the  cells  before  being  oxidized,  but  most 


NUTRITION 


87 


authorities  now  agree  that  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
cells  make  use  of  the  nutriments  constantlys  urround- 
ing  them  in  the  lymph  in  the  same  way  as  the  yeast 
cells  use  a  solution  of  sugar  surrounding  them  when 
they  oxidize  it  in  their  life  process. 

The  muscles  and  glands  are  not  entirely  dependent 
on  the  immediate  supply  of  nutrients  and  oxygen 
brought  by  the  blood.  For  example,  the  leg  muscles 
of  a  frog,  removed  entirely  from  the  body  and  its 
blood  extracted,  may  be  made  to  contract  a  number 
of  times  if  the  nerves  are  stimulated  by  an  electric 
current.  The  contractions  gradually  grow  weaker 
with  successive  applications  of  the  current  until  they 
cease.  Carbon  dioxide  and  other  waste  products 
are  given  off. 

It  is  not  known  in  what  form  this  energy  is  stored, 
but  the  substance  must  be  in  chemical  nature  some- 
thing like  the  explosives  in  which  the  oxygen  is  held 
in  some  loose  way  so  that  it  is  able  to  unite  with  the 
carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  substance,  when  a  spark 
or  heavy  blow  starts  the  action.  In  the  muscles  of 
the  body  it  is  the  nervous  impulse  which  starts  the 
chemical  process. 

We  are  not  accustomed  to  think  of  the  oxidation 
of  carbon  at  a  low  temperature  as  we  are  so  familiar 
with  common  forms  of  rapid  combustion  at  a  high 
temperature  where  light  is  produced.  We  are  also 
accustomed  to  think  of  heat  as  being  the  only  form 
of  energy  produced  by  oxidation,  but  in  the  electric 


Reserve 
Energy 


Use  of  the 
Energy  of 
Oxidization 


88  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

battery  we  have  an  instance  of  the  energy  of  chemical 
union  being  changed  in  part  into  heat  and  in  part  into 
electricity.  The  body  cells  use  the  energy  of  chemical 
union  of  nutrients  and  oxygen  in  many  ways.  In 
the  muscles  it  is  apparent  in  movement.  In  the 
glands  the  energy  is  used  to  transform  some  of  the 
contents  of  the  blood  into  its  peculiar  secretion.  In 
the  nerves  the  energy  is  transformed  into  a  nervous 
impulse,  and  so  on.  Just  how  this  happens  is  one 
of  the  many  mysteries  of  life  processes. 

The  use  of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  by  the  body 
cells  is  fairly  well  understood.  They  contain  only 
carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,~  and  their  ultimate 
waste  products  are  known  to  be  carbon  dioxide  and 
water. 
Volt's  The  proteids  are  much  more  complex  chemical 
of  the  use  bodies.  The  exact  way  in  which  the  atoms  are  com- 
bined in  the  molecule  is  not  known  of  any  of  them. 
The  way  the  proteids  are  used  by  the  body  has  been  a 
subject  of  a  great  deal  of  study  and  controversy. 
One  theory  is  that  they  are  all  built  into  the  living 
cells  before  being  used,  but,  as  we  have  already  said, 
this  seems  improbable,  because  of  the  very  rapid 
excretion  of  waste  products  of  proteid  soon  after 
they  are  absorbed.  The  theory  of  Voit  is  that  they 
are  used  from  the  blood  for  heat  and  energy  by  the 
cells  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  sugar,  and  that  the 
cells  use  proteids  in  preference  to  sugar  and  fats. 
This  has  led  to  the  common  teaching  that  other  nutri- 


of  Proteids 


NUTRITION 


ents  —  the  gelatinoids,  carbohydrates  and  fats  —  are 
"proteid  sparers,"  in  the  order  named. 

Recent  experiments  and  analyses  made  by  the 
physiological  chemist,  Dr.  Folin,  at  the  McLean  Hos- 
pital, Waverly,  Mass.,  and  other  workers  have  led  to 
the  bringing  forth  of  a  new  theory  as  to  the  role 
played  by  the  proteids  in  nutrition.* 

The  cells  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  proteid  to 
make  good  their  substance  lost  during  activity.  In 
digestion  the  proteids  are  changed  into  soluble  pep- 
tones and  simpler  bodies,  but  no  peptones  are  found 
in  the  blood.  It  is  thought  that  the  proteids  of  the 
blood  are  built  up  in  the  walls  of  the  intestines  dur- 
ing absorption.  The  blood  and  lymph  are  richly  sup- 
plied with  proteid  material  from  which,  without  doubt, 
the  cells  make  good  their  loss  and  new  cells  are  formed. 

Dr.  Folin's  experiments  seem  to  show  that  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  proteids  taken 
in  the  food  reaches  the  general  circulation  as  pro- 
teid, but  that  most  of  the  nitrogen  and  sulphur  por- 
tion is  split  off  during  digestion  and  elsewhere, 
the  nitrogen  products  changed  chiefly  to  urea  in  the 
liver,  and  the  urea  and  sulphur  compounds  eliminated 
from  the  blood  by  the  kidneys  soon  after. 

Urea  contains  nitrogen,  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydro- 
gen. It  is  a  substance  somewhat  similar  to  ammon- 
ium carbonate,  to  which  it  is  easily  changed  outside 
the  body. 

*  See  article  in  Food  and  Dietetics,  page  196. 


Folin's 
Theory 


Formation 
of  the  Proteid 
in  the  Blood 


Nitrogen 
and 

Sulphur 
Split  Off 


go  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

The  remaining  part  of  the  proteid  substance  — 
the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  —  is  changed,  per- 
haps, to  sugar  and  used  like  sugar.  At  least,  it  is 
known  that  proteids  may  yield  glycogen.  According 
to  Forin's  theory,  then,  the  body  uses  little  or  no  pro- 
teids, as  such,  for  heat  and  energy,  but  their  nitrogen 
and  sulphur  part  is  at  once  split  off.  The  remaining 
part  only — the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  —  being 
of  use  to  the  body,  except  for  a  comparatively  small 
part  of  that  in  an  ordinary  diet  which  makes  good  the 
proteid  of  the  blood  used  for  cellular  repair  and  growth, 
cellular  On  a  diet  of  starch  and  cream,  containing  practically 

Destroyed  no  proteid,  he  found  that  the  daily  excretion  of  nitro- 
gen products  for  an  average  size  man  conesponds  to 
about  20  grams  of  proteid.  From  this  and  further 
experiments  he  is  led  to  believe  that  the  20  grams 
of  proteid  —  about  ^4  °f  an  ounce  —  represents  the 
daily  proteid  waste  of  the  living  cells. 

If  Folin's  theory  is  correct,  and  it  seems  to  have 
been  accepted  by  recent  writers,  the  proteid  required 
for  the  needs  of  the  adult  body  to  repair  wastes  is 
much  less  than  was  formerly  supposed. 

Experiments  by  Professor  Chittenden  lead  to  some- 
what the  same  conclusion.  While  Voit  and  others 
taught  that  about  118  grams  of  dried  proteid  are 
needed  daily  by  an  adult  man  weighing  about  150 
pounds,  Chittenden's  experiments  have  shown  that 
health  may  be  maintained,  for  months  at  least,  on 
from  30  to  50  grams  of  proteid  daily. 


NUTRITION 


91 


Whether  or  not  it  is  desirable  to  maintain  the  body- 
on  low  proteid  diet  is  another  question.  The  experi- 
ence of  past  ages  cannot  be  lightly  cast  aside.  The 
amount  of  proteid  food  recommended  by  Voit,  At- 
water  and  others  in  standard  dietaries  is  taken  from 
the  quantity  consumed,  on  the  average,  by  people 
free  to  choose.  In  some  diseases,  like  consumption, 
experience  has  proved  that  high  proteid  feeding  is 
very  beneficial.  On  the  other  hand,  the  products  of 
proteid  destruction  are  more  harmful  to  the  body  if 
they  accumulate,  and  their  removal  involves  more 
labor  on  the  part  of  the  excretory  organs  than  the 
elimination  of  the  carbon  dioxide  and  water  produced 
when  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  used. 

The  consumption  of  meat  increases  the  amount  of 
uric  acid  and  other  "purin  bodies"  formed,  and  this 
is  undesirable  in  diseased  conditions  like  rheuma- 
tism and  gout.  There  is  no  evidence  that  such 
diseases  are  caused  by  uric  acid.  The  proteids  of 
eggs,  milk,  grains,  nuts,  peas  and  beans,  do  not 
increase  the  formation  of  uric  acid.  Uric  acid  is  a 
normal  waste  product  of  cellular  disintegration.  It 
varies  in  different  individuals.  In  birds  it  is  the 
chief  excretory  product  of  nitrogen. 

There  is  no  conclusive  evidence  at  present  that 
proteids  may  be  converted  into  fat.  It  is  known  that 
they  may  be  changed  to  some  extent  into  glycogen, 
but  the  body  can  store  only  about  seven  ounces  of 
glycogen,  consequently  if  the  body  has  the  maximum 


Low 

Proteid 

Diet 


Uric  Acid 
Formation 


Proteids 
Cannot  be 
Stored 
Must  be 
Destroyed 


Q2 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Proteids 

Increase 

Total 

Oxidization 


quantity  of  glycogen,  it  must  use  up  —  oxidize  — 
the  proteids  eaten  and  digested  in  excess  of  the  com- 
paratively small  amount  necessary  to  repair  cellular 
waste.  It  has  been  found  that  increasing  the  pro- 
portion of  proteid,  if  the  diet  is  liberal,  does  increase 
the  amount  of  oxygen  consumed,  carbon  dioxide  elimi- 
nated, and  consequently  the  output  of  heat  of  the  body, 
even  if  there  is  no  increase  in  muscular  work. 

In  other  words,  with  the  body  at  rest  more  heat 
will  be  produced  and  given  out  on  a  liberal  diet  made 
up  largely  of  meat  and  other  proteid  foods  than  on  a* 
liberal  diet  composed  chiefly  of  starch,  sugar,  and  fat. 

It  might  be  stated  here  that  the  splitting  off  of 
the  nitrogen  and  sulphur  from  the  proteid  probably 
involves  the  production  of  a  little  heat,  and  that  to 
form  sugar  or  glycogen  from  the  residue  some  oxida- 
tion is  necessary ;  this  would  account  for  some  of  the 
increased  heat  production  on  a  diet  made  up  largely 
of  proteids. 

Not  only  is  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  proteid 
oxidized  nearly  as  fast  as  it  is  assimilated,  but 
there  is  apparently  greater  total  oxidation  in  the  body. 
That  is,  assimilation  of  proteids  stimulates  oxidation 
of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats.  Just  how  much 
this  stimulation  amounts  to  cannot  be  said  now. 
It  is  probably  greater  if  the  external  temperature  is 
high.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, in  its  nutrition  investigations  with  the  respira- 
tion  calorimeter,  is  working  on  this  problem,  and 


NUTRITION  93 

the  results    of    the   experiments    will    be    available 
shortly. 

There  is,  then,  a  marked  difference  in  the  way  the 
carbohydrates  and  fats  on  the  one  hand  and  proteids 
on  the  other  react  in  the  body.  The  consumption  of 
carbohydrates  and  fats  is  somewhat  like  the  consump- 
tion of  coal  in  a  hard  coal  fire.  Adding  more  coal 
(fats  and  carbohydrates)  does  not  increase  the  amount 
of  combustion  to  any  great  extent.  Oxidation  is 
increased  only  by  increasing  the  draft  (increasing  mus- 
cular exercise) .  The  proteids  are  more  like  some  easily 
combustible  stuff,  like  shavings.  When  put  on  the  fire 
(absorbed)  they  are  immediately  consumed  even  if  the 
draft  is  not  changed,  and  in  burning,  they  cause  more 
of  the  coal  (carbohydrates  and  fats)  to  be  consumed. 

To  sum  up,  the  present  theories  as  to  the  use  made 
of  the  proteids  in  the  body  are  about  as  follows: 

(i)  The   amount  of  proteid  required  for  cellular     Summary 
repair  is  much  less  than  formerly  supposed.     Moder-     of  Proteids 
ate   muscular   activity   does   not   seem   to    increase 
perceptibly  the  cellular  proteid  destroyed. 

(2)  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the  body  has  little 
ability  to  store  the  proteids  taken  in  food  as  proteid, 
nor  the  residue  after  splitting  off  the  nitrogen  and 
sulphur  as  fat. 

(3)  The  body  must  use  up  the  proteid  digested 
about  as  fast  as  it  is  absorbed,  excreting  the  nitrogen 
chiefly  as  urea  and  oxidizing  the  carbon  and  hydro- 
gen to  carbon  dioxide  and  to  water. 


94  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

(4)  Increasing  the  proportion  of  proteid  in  a 
liberal  diet  increases  the  heat  output  of  the  body  and, 
especially  if  the  external  temperature  is  high,  stimu- 
lates the  oxidation  of  all  the  food  materials. 

TEMPERATURE  REGULATION 

Man  with  the  higher  animals  is  able  to  maintain 
approximately  constant  temperature  through  a  wide 
range  of  external  temperature.  In  the  hottest  day 
of  summer  or  the  coldest  day  of  winter,  the  blood 
registers  between  97.5°  and  99.5^.  (See  Home  Care 
of  the  Sick,  page  43.) 
Cow  The  so-called  cold  blooded  animals  —  frogs,  turtles 

Animals  reptiles,  fishes  —  do  not  have  this  power  of  tempera- 
ture regulation.  Their  blood  is  the  temperature  of 
their  surroundings  or  only  a  few  degrees  higher.  In 
the  cold  winter  months  such  animals  and  some  of  the 
fishes  "hibernate."  Some  animals,  like  the  bear 
and  woodchuck,  that  maintain  an  even  temperature 
in  summer,  hibernate  during  the  winter  months. 
They  retire  to  some  sheltered  place  and  sink  into  a 
deep  sleep.  Life  processes  gradually  sink  and  the 
temperature  of  the  blood  lowers  to  about  that  of  the 
surroundings.  They  take  no  food,  but  live  on  their 
accumulated  fat. 

Through  our  ability  to  keep  the  body  usually  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  the  surroundings  we  are  able 
to  maintain  activity  throughout  the  year,  even  in  the 
coldest  climate,  when  otherwise  we  would  have  to 


TEMPERATURE  REGULATION 


95 


remain  in  a  half-alive  condition  through  the  cold 
season,  like  the  bear. 

The  question  arises,  how  is  the  heat  of  the  body 
obtained,  and  second,  how  is  it  regulated?  The 
activity  of  all  the  cells  produces  heat  in  addition  to 
their  peculiar  functions.  Heat  is  always  one  of  the 
products  of  life.  The  muscles  cannot  transform  all 
the  energy  of  the  chemical  union  of  oxygen  and  the 
food  materials  into  the  power  of  contraction.  Only 
25  or  35  per  cent  of  digested  and  assimilated  food  can 
be  so  used,  the  remainder  being  changed  into  heat. 
The  actively  working  glands  produce  much  heat; 
the  liver  during  activity  may  reach  io7°F,  but  the 
rapidly  circulating  blood  distributes  the  heat  fairly 
uniformly,  although  that  coming  from  the  lungs  to 
the  heart  is  about  one  degree  cooler  than  that  from 
the  general  circulation.  The  skin  rarely  has  a  tem- 
perature over  93°F,  and  may  of  course  become  frost 
bitten  if  exposed  to  severe  cold. 

The  work  of  the  internal  organs  and  the  friction 
in  the  circulation  of  the  blood  gives  considerable  heat, 
but  not  enough  to  maintain  the  vital  temperature  of 
the  body  at  rest.  This  is  supplied  by  a  slight  uncon- 
scious contraction  in  all  the  skeletal  muscles  and  the 
muscles  which  contract  the  small  arteries.  They  are 
under  slight  tension  or  "tone"  brought  about  by 
successive  nervous  impulses.  During  cold  weather 
this  unconscious  muscular  tension  or  tone  is  greater, 
giving  a  greater  production  of  heat.     This  accounts  for 


Production 
of  Heat 


Muscular 
Tone 


96  personal  hygiene 

the  stimulating  effect  of  cold.  As  the  external  tem- 
perature is  lowered,  the  muscular  tension  increases 
and  it  finally  becomes  apparent  in  shivering. 

The  heat  of  the  body  is  lost  on  the  average  as 
follows : 

i.  By  urine  and  feces 1.8  per  cent 

2.  By  expired  air :    Warming  of  air.  ..  .     3.5     "      " 

Vaporization  of  water  from  lungs     7.2     "      " 

3.  By  evaporating  from  skin 14.5     "      " 

4.  By  radiation  and  conduction  from 

skin 73.0     "      " 

We  regulate  the  heat  losses  to  some  extent  by  wear- 
ing thicker  or  thinner  clothing,  according  to  the 
weather,  but  the  chief  means  of  getting  rid  of  a 
superabundance  of  heat  is  through  perspiration  and 
the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  the  blood  to  the  skin. 
When  active  muscular  exercise  is  taken  or  during 
hot  weather  an  excess  of  heat  is  produced  ;  then  the 
capillaries  of  the  skin  dilate,  more  blood  flows  near 
the  surface  and  some  of  its  heat  is  lost  through 
conduction  and  radiation.  If  this  is  not  sufficient, 
perspiration  becomes  much  more  active.  The  eva- 
poration of  liquids,  especially  water,  absorbs  and 
carries  away  in  the  vapor  a  very  large  quantity  of 
heat.  Perspiration  only  becomes  visible  when  it  is 
secreted  faster  than  it  is  evaporated. 

On  a  warm  day  with  the  temperature,  say  at  g-o0F, 
even  when  sitting  still,  the  secretion  of  the  perspira- 
tion is  active  and  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  are 
dilated  to  their .  fullest  extent.     As  the  temperature 


TEMPERATURE  REGULATION 


97 


falls,  perspiration  becomes  less  abundant  and  at 
about  7o°F.  almost  ceases.  Below  7o°F.  the  blood 
vessels  begin  to  contract,  forcing  the  blood  to  the 
interior  of  the  body.  At  about  6o°  they  have  con- 
tracted as  much  as  possible  and  the  body  has  done  its 
utmost  to  prevent  the  loss  of  heat.  To  keep  up  the 
temperature  of  the  body  more  heat  must  be  supplied 
through  muscular  activity  or  warmer  clothing  must 
be  put  on. 

Moving  air  carries  away  heat  rapidly,  both  by 
convection  and  by  increasing  evaporation. 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  makes 
a  great  difference  in  the  heat  loss  from  the  body. 
Moist  air  is  a  much  better  conductor  of  heat  than  dry 
air.  On  a  winter's  day  when  we  say  the  air  is  cold 
and  "raw",  we  mean  that  it  contains  a  large  propor- 
tion of  moisture,  and  so  conducts  the  heat  away  from 
the  body  rapidly.  On  a  summer  day,  the  air  is 
"sultry"  or  "muggy"  because  it  holds  nearly  all  the 
moisture  which  it  is  capable  of  taking  up,  the  per- 
spiration cannot  evaporate  from  the  skin  rapidly 
and  the  body  is  more  liable  to  become  over-heated 

In  our  houses  a  temperature  between  68°and  7o°F. 
is  the  ideal;  then,  with  ordinary  clothing,  the  blood  is 
evenly  distributed  between  the  skin  and  the  internal 
organs,  and  there  is  comparatively  little  perspiration. 

The  dangerous  temperature  is  between  650  and 
6o°F.*     If  while  sitting  quietly  in  a  room  the  tem- 

*  The  Human  Mechanism,  page  201. 


Effect  of 
Humidity 


Ideal 
Temperature 


98  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

perature  gradually  falls  below  65°,  the  blood  vessels  of 
the  skin  are  contracted  more  and  more  and  the  blood 
is  forced  into  the  internal  organs  and  membranes, 
and  the  congestion  may  result  in  colds  or  other  trou- 
bles. If  the  drop  in  temperature  is  gradual  it  may  be 
unnoticed,  whereas  a  sudden  drop  would  be  at  once 
apparent  and  one  would  immediately  proceed  to 
increase  the  temperature  or  put  on  more  clothing. 

It  is  equally  dangerous  to  go  from  a  room  tempera- 
ture of  750  to  80 °  into  the  cold.  (See  Chemistry  of 
the  Household,  page  19.) 

ELIMINATION 

The  waste  products  of  the  human  machine  are  its 
most   dangerous   enemies.     Elimination   is   fully   as 
important  as  alimentation  and  respiration. 
Food  We  have  seen  that  the  undigested  part  of  food, 

and  the  waste  portion  of  some  of  the  digestive  secre- 
tions, accumulate  in  the  lower  part  of  the  colon. 
Here  putrefaction  goes  on  actively.  The  longer  the 
wastes  remain  in  the  colon  the  more  active  becomes 
the  decomposition  by  the  bacteria.  Some  of  the 
products,  especially  of  proteid  decomposition,  are 
poisonous.  As  we  have  seen,  the  chief  function 
of  the  large  intestine  is  absorption.  Food,  even, 
is  sometimes  administered  through  rectal  enema. 
It  is  apparent,  then,  that  the  accumulated  wastes 
should  be  eliminated  promptly.  For  most  persons 
unloading  of  the   rectum  should  take  place   daily. 


ELIMINA  TION 


99 


Neglect  of  this  internal  cleaning  is  much  more  disas- 
trous than  failure  to  clean  the  skin,  for  the  skin  is 
practically  non-absorbent,  while  in  the  colon  absorp- 
tion takes  place  constantly.  A  pasty  complexion 
indicates  defective  internal  cleansing  more  often  than 
lack  of  care  of  the  skin. 

It  is  surprising  how  many  people,  especially  women, 
neglect  this  function.  The  vice  of  constipation  is 
very  prevalent  among  people  whose  occupation  is 
sedentary.  In  addition  to  rectal  troubles,  such  as 
piles  and  hemorrhoids,  neglect  leads  to  headache  and 
various  minor  disorders. 

The  remedy  for  constipation  is  not  by  drugging, 
but  by  the  removal  of  the  underlying  cause,  and  es- 
pecially in  establishing  good  habits.  Regularity 
is  as  important  here  as  regularity  of  meals.  Defeca- 
tion should  take  place  daily  and  preferably  at  ike 
same  hour,  so  that  the  habit  may  become  established. 
Food  eaten  should  be  such  as  will  leave  considerable 
bulk  to  be  eliminated,  that  is,  the  diet  should  con- 
tain an  abundance  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and 
grains  which  have  not  had  all  of  their  outer  covering 
removed,  such  as  oatmeal  and  whole  wheat.  Fats 
and  oils  help  in  some  cases.  Plenty  of  water  should 
be  taken;  exercise,  especially  such  as  work  the  ab- 
dominal muscles  and  sometimes  massage  is  helpful. 
The  organs  chiefly  concerned  in  eliminating  the 
wastes  from  the  blood  are  the  lungs  and  kidneys. 
Carbon  dioxide,  and  incidentally  some  water,  is  dis- 


Constipation 


Wastes 
in  the 
Blood 


IOO 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Proteid 

Waste 

Products 


charged  by  the  lungs,  also  a  small  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  passes  through  the  skin  by  diffusion  from 
the  blood  in  the  skin  capillaries.  The  nitrogen  and 
sulphur  products  of  proteid  decomposition  with  water, 
salts,  and  many  substances  in  small  quantity  are 
eliminated  as  urine  by  the  kidneys. 

The  oxidation  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  yields 
only  carbon  dioxide  and  water.  The  proteids,  gela- 
tinoids  and  extractives,  in  addition  to  carbon  dioxide 
and  water,  give  urea,  kreatinine, 
uric  acid,  sulphur  compounds 
and  other  substances  in  small 
quantities. 

The  kidneys  are  two  bean- 
shaped  bodies  situated  on 
either  side  of  the  spinal  column 
in  the  small  of  the  back.  A 
large  artery  and  a  large  vein 
pass  between  them,  both  of 
which  send  off  branches  to  each 
kidney.  The  blood  flows  from 
the  artery  through  the  kidneys 
to  the  vein.  The  kidney  cells 
have  the  power  of  selective 
absorption  and  take  out  harm- 
ful and  waste  products  from  the  blood.  They  are 
constantly  secreting  urine,  which  passes  through  the 
two  ureters  to  the  bladder  from  which  it  is  dis- 
charged from  time  to  time. 


Kidneys  and  Bladder. 


ELIMINA  TION  101 

In  general,  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys — the  salts 
and  other  waste  products,  but  not  necessarily  the 
water  —  is  determined  by  the  blood  supply.  Thus 
it  is  increased  by  active  exercise,  during  which  all 
the  blood  is  circulating  more  rapidly. 

Cold  weather  increases  the  secretion  to  some  ex- 
tent because  the  constriction  of  the  blood  vessels  in 
the  skin  throws  a  greater  quantity  of  the  blood  to 
the  interior  of  the  body. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  blood  is  kept  nearly  Elimination 
constant  by  the  activity  of  the  kidneys  and  sweat 
glands.  If  more  water  is  taken  than  is  required, 
the  excess  is  promptly  eliminated.  The  kidneys 
must  have  sufficient  water  to  dissolve  the  urea  and 
other  products,  but  especially  uric  acid.  This  is 
not  a  very  soluble  substance,  and  is  the  probable 
cause  of  a  number  of  disorders,  for  which  reason  and 
others,  it  is  desirable  to  have  an  excess  supply  of 
water. 

During  active  perspiration,  the  skin  secretes  con- 
siderable water  and  a  small  amount  of  urea  and  other 
waste  products  found  in  the  blood.  If  a  large 
amount  of  water  is  secreted  by  the  sweat  glands  less 
is  eliminated  by  the  kidneys.  In  certain  diseases 
of  the  kidneys,  the  excretion  of  the  urea  in  the  per- 
spiration is  increased,  but  the  more  important  func- 
tion of  the  sweat  glands  is  their  work  in  temperature 
regulation,  and  not  in  their  elimination. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

The  following  questions  constitute  the  "written  reci- 
tation" which  the  regular  members  of  the  A.  S.  H.  E. 
answer  in  writing  and  send  in  for  the  correction  and 
comment  of  the  instructor.  They  are  intended  to 
emphasize  and  fix  in  the  memory  the  most  important 
points  in  the  lesson. 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Read  Carefully.  Answer  each  question  fully.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  writing  too  fully.  Use  your  own  words,  so  that  the 
instructor  may  be  sure  that  you  understand  every  point. 
You  are  expected  to  ask  questions  freely.  Leave  space  be- 
tween your  answers  for  comments  and  write  on  one  side  of 
the  sheet  only.  

i.     How  is  energy  of  the  human  machine  obtained? 
In  what  ways  is  this  energy  used  ? 

2.  What  are  enzimes  and  how  are  they  of  use  in  the 

body? 

3.  Trace  the  digestion  and  absorption  into  the  gen- 

eral circulation  of  (a)  starch,  (b)  the  fats,  (c) 
the  proteids. 

4.  What  brings  about  the  secretion  (a)  of  the  saliva, 

(b)  the  gastric  juices,  (c)  the  pancreatic  juice? 

5.  To  what  extent  have  we  voluntary  control  over 

digestion  ? 

6.  What  can  you  say  of  the  composition  of  the  blood  ? 

(b)  How  is  its  proportion  of  sugar  maintained  ? 

(c)  How  is  the  blood  circulated  ?  (d)  What 
would  be  the  effect  of  a  sluggish  circulation 
and  what  might  bring  it  about  ? 

7.  How  is  oxygen  used  in  the  body  ?     Does  it  purify 

the  blood  ? 

8.  Explain  fully  how  oxygen  is  brought  to  the  cells 

and  how  carbon  dioxide  is  eliminated,  (b) 
How  is  the  process  made  more  effective  ? 

103 


104  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

^  9.     How  is  water  used  by  the  body  ?      (b)    For  what 
are  the  mineral  matters  necessary  ?     (c)    How 
are  the  salts  and  water  eliminated  ? 
_^  10.     Why  must  the  body  have  proteid  food  ? 
^1 1 .     How  are  the  carbohydrates  used  by   the  body 
cells  ?     The  fats  ? 
s».     Give  the  various  theories  as  to  the  way  in  which 
proteids  are  used. 
^13.     Contrast  the  manner   in  which  the  body   acts 
towards  proteids  and  non-nitrogenous  foods. 
--14.     In  what  forms  is  the  body  fuel  stored  ?     What 

happens  in  starvation? 
^15.     How  is  the  temperature  of  the  body   kept  up 
and  how  is  it  regulated  ? 

16.  What  are  the  products  of  proteid  disintegration? 

17.  Why  should  the  waste  matters  of  digestion  be 

eliminated  promptly  ?  (b)  By  what  nat- 
ural means  may  a  tendency  to  constipation 
be  overcome  ? 

18.  What  new  facts  have  you  learned  in  this  lesson 

applicable  to  the  care  of  your  own  health? 

19.  Have  you  read  any  other  books  in  connection 

with  this  lesson  ? 

20.  What  questions  have  you  to  ask  ? 

Note.     After  completing  the  answers,  sign  your  full  name 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

PART     III 

Care  of  the  Machine 


DOUBTLESS  because  our  instincts  guard  us  in 
many  ways  and  because  it  is  only  the  applica- 
tion of  physiology,  the  subject  of  Personal  Hygiene 
has  not  yet  reached  the  stage  of  a  science  or  even  a  well- 
defined  art.  The  application  is  often  hard  to  make. 
Medical  schools  teach  the  science  of  the  relief  of  ill- 
ness, but  the  care  necessary  to  keep  the  body  in 
health  is  usually  considered  only  in  brief  series  of 
lectures.  There  are  numerous  technical  books  on 
anatomy,  physiology,  medicine,  sanitation,  but  at 
present  none  on  Personal  Hygiene.  The  progressive 
physicians  are  true  practitioners  of  hygiene  instead 
of  merely  prescribers  of  drugs.  "  Preventive  medi- 
cine" has  a  greatfuture. 

So  far  we  have  considered  the  human  body  as  a 
living  machine,  and  learned  how  it  is  operated.  A 
little  has  been  said  in  passing  on  the  care  of  the  ma- 
chine, but  what  has  gone  before,  while  more  or  less 
interesting,  is  important  only  in  relation  to  the  care 
of  the  machine.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  under- 
stand a  mechanism  to  know  how  it  should  be  cared  for. 

Mere  general  rules  of  health  are  of  little  value.  We 
seldom  follow  such  unless  we  understand  the  reasons 
for  them,  or  realize  the  sure  penalty,  near  or  remote, 

105 


Personal 
Hygiene 
Not  Yet  a 
Science 


Reasons 
Not  Rules 


106  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

of  their  infringement.  Happily  the  day  is  past  when 
poor  health  was  a  distinction;  still  the  majority  feel 
that  illness  is  a  grievance  and  not  direct  retribution 
for  our  physical  sins  of  omission  and  commission, 
as  it  usually  is.  Here,  it  is  true,  "the  sins  of  the 
fathers  are  visited  on  the  children  unto  the  third  and 
fourth  generation."  The  adult  body  is  rarely  a  per- 
fect machine;  through  inheritance,  accident,  or  lack 
of  proper  care  in  youth  some  function -or  organ  may 
become  impaired.  We  all  have  our  physical  limita- 
tions, but  how  few  of  us  live  up  to  such  limitations! 
When  will  physical  ills  be  as  much  of  a  reproach  as 
moral  ills,  and  when  shall  we  regard  as  nearly  equal 
the  "Physical  health  scorning  disease  and  mental 
health  scorning  sin." 

HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

Nervous  Modern  life  has  undoubtedly  greatly  increased  the 

of  Modern  demands  made  on  the  nervous  system.  The  intro- 
duction of  rapid  transportation,  newspapers,  tele- 
phone, keener  competition  in  social  and  business  life, 
many  and  varied  interests,  all  have  increased  nerv- 
ous wear  and  tear.  The  majority  live  more  rapidly 
than  two  generations  ago.  All  this  calls  for  a  strong 
nervous  system,  but  a  strong  nervous  system  is  built 
up  only  by  education  and  use  and  maintained  only 
by  use  and  a.  healthy  body.  The  brain  can  accom- 
plish an  immense  amount  of  work  if  it  is  supplied 
with  good  blood  and  given  sufficient  rest  and  relaxa- 


Life 


HYGIENE   OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM      107 


tion.  It  is  worry,  poor  nutrition  and  lack  of  rest 
that  most  often  cause  nervous  breakdown — not 
brain  work. 

As  the  nervous  system  controls  every  function  of 
the  human  machine,  its  care  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. When  damaged,  repair  is  always  a  long  and 
difficult  process,  for  its  impairment  throws  out  all 
the  functions  of  the  body.  All  the  organs  are  sub- 
ject to  fatigue,  and  require  a  period  of  rest.  The 
muscles  cannot  contract  continuously,  the  stomach 
cannot  always  be  engaged  in  digestion — there  is  even 
a  period  of  rest  for  the  heart  between  beats.  Be- 
cause of  its  great  complexity,  rest  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary for  the  nervous  system,  especially  the  higher 
nerve  centers  making  up  the  brain.  This  rest  the 
brain  obtains  only  in  sleep, —  perfectly  only  in  deep, 
dreamless  sleep. 

Change  of  occupation  gives  rest  to  a  part  of  the 
nervous  system,  as  for  example  changing  from  mental 
work  to  physical  activity;  but  each  muscular  con- 
traction calls  for  nervous  impulses  and  so  adds  to 
general  fatigue.  Most  often  this  is  desirable,  for  gen- 
eral fatigue  brings  about  sound  sleep. 

We  must  sleep  periodically  probably  because  the 
wastes  of  the  body  accumulate  faster  than  they  are 
eliminated.  During  sleep  nearly  all  the  organs  are 
less  active  and  the  wastes  are  eliminated  faster  than 
they  are  made.  The  muscles  store  up  oxygen  and 
nutriment,    the  glands  build  up  substances  out  of 


Importance 
of  the 
Nervous 
System 


Sleep 


io8 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Conditions 
in  Sleep 


Amount 
of  Sleep 


Soundness 

and  Effect 

of  Sleep 


which  they  make  their  peculiar  secretions,  the  nerve 
centers  store  up  energy  and  all  the  cells  are  repaired. 

During  sleep  respiration  is  slowed  down  and  deep- 
ened, the  breathing  is  more  intercostal;  the  heart 
beats  somewhat  more  slowly;  the  muscles  are  re- 
laxed; less  blood  flows  through  the  brain  and  more 
through  the  skin.  "It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the 
digestive  secretions  are  diminished  during  sleep,  but 
the  statement  does  not  seem  to  rest  on  satisfactory 
observation,  and  may  be  doubted."  *  *  *  "On  the 
whole,  however,  the  physiological  activities  of  the 
body  go  on  much  as  in  waking  conditions. "  (Howell.) 
It  is  chiefly  the  brain  which  sleeps. 

Most  people  require  eight  hours  of  sleep,  others 
nine,  although  for  some  seven  hours  seems  to  be  suffi- 
cient. It  is  said  that  women  need  an  hour  longer 
sleep  than  men,  but  that  probably  depends  upon  the 
individual  and  habit. 

The  depth  of  unconsciousness  increases  to  between 
the  first  and  second  hour  of  sleep,  and  then  gradually 
diminishes,  although  towards  morning  it  increases 
slightly  again.  Sleep  is  more  sound  in  a  darkened 
room,  and  when  there  is  quiet.  Sleep  is  not  nearly 
so  deep  during  restlessness.  To  have  the  greatest 
effect,  sleep  should  all  be  taken  at  one  time ;  several 
periods  equaling  eight  hours  do  not  give  nearly  as 
much  recuperative  effect  as  the  same  period  at  one 
time.  If  one  is  constantly  disturbed  during  the 
night  more  sleep  is  required. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM      109 

The  question  of  naps  depends  upon  the  general  Naps 
health  and  conditions.  Those  subjected  to  great 
nervous  strain,  or  those  who  are  weak  are  much  bene- 
fited by  a  brief  nap,  but  people  in  robust  health 
should  have  a  nervous  system  sufficiently  strong 
to  make  naps  unnecessary.  The  nervous  system 
is  strengthened  through  use,  just  as  the  muscles  are 
trained  by  exercise  and  the  stomach  by  eating  food 
(in  moderation)  that  requires  strong  digestive  power. 
If  one  is  under  special  strain,  a  brief  nap  gives  re- 
freshment all  out  of  proportion  to  its  length.  Naps 
cannot,  however,  replace  the  long  sleep  at  night,  and 
they  should  not  interfere  with  it.  Momentary  re- 
laxation also  gives  a  recuperative  effect  out  of  propor- 
tion to  its  length. 

The  necessity  of  good  ventilation  at  night  has 
already  been  spoken  of.  An  increasing  number  of 
people  are  making  a  practice  of  sleeping  out  of  doors 
under  sheltered  porches,  especially  in  summer  time. 
What  is  good  for  the  upbuilding  of  consumptives 
should  prove  of  equal  value  in  helping  minor  troubles 
or  in  maintaining  health. 

The  temperature  of  the  sleeping  room  should  be 
brought  down  to  what  it  can  be  maintained  through- 
out the  night;  then  the  bedding  can  be  arranged  to 
suit  the  temperature. 

Heavy  bedding  is  undesirable.  Woolen  blankets  The  Bed 
give  the  greatest  warmth  for  their  weight  and  "  down  Bedding 
puffs"  are  much  superior  to  the  heavy  cotton  quilts 


no  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

or  "comforters."  The  typical  white  bed-spread 
is  heavy  and  gives  very  little  warmth.  It  is  best 
removed  or  turned  back  at  night.  The  spring  should 
keep  the  mattress  level.  As  about  a  third  of  life 
is  spent  in  bed,  it  pays  to  get  a  good  mattress.  It 
should  be  comfortable,  but  not  too  soft.  For  most 
people,  a  low  pillow  is  desirable,  as  high  pillows  keep 
the  body  from  lying  flat. 
insomnia  Sleeplessness  has  many  causes,   but  it  is  lack  of 

muscular  activity  that  is  most  often  at  the  bottom 
of  the  trouble.  The  day  laborer,  the  farmer,  fisher- 
men, lumbermen — all  who  live  an  active,  outdoor 
life,  are  not  troubled  with  insomnia.  Anything 
which  over-excites  the  brain  is  liable  to  cause  sleep- 
lessness. If  there  is  trouble  anywhere  in  the  system, 
the  nerves  are  unduly  excited,  and  as  there  is 
intimate  connection  between  all  parts  of  the  nervous 
system,  the  brain  is  affected.  Indigestion  is  a  fre- 
quent cause.  The  use  of  tea,  coffee  and  even  cocoa 
at  night  often  causes  sleeplessness.  Those  who  go 
over  in  the  mind  the  activities  of  the  day — lie  in  bed 
and  think  and  think,  are  troubled  with  sleepless- 
ness. Sleep  depends  much  on  habit.  Those  who 
have  acquired  the  habit  of  not  going  to  sleep 
easily,  find  it  hard  to  break  themselves  of  the  habit. 
Regularity  as  to  the  time  of  going  to  bed  is  a  great 
.  help  in  establishing  good  habits  of  sleep.  If  one 
goes  to  bed  at  all  hours,  it  is  increasing  the  difficulty 
to  drop  off  to  sleep  immediately.     Sometimes   the 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       m 

trouble  comes  from  the  inability  to  relax  the  muscles 
completely.     This  power  needs  to  be  cultivated. 

The  only  means  of  overcoming  the  vice  of  sleep-  To 
lessness  is  the  removal  of  the  cause.  The  imme-  sleep 
diate  cause  of  sleeplessness  is  most  frequently  an 
excess  of  blood  in  the  circulation  of  the  brain.  Any- 
thing which  will  draw  the  blood  away  from  the  brain 
will  prove  helpful.  The  blood  supply  of  the  brain 
is  most  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  skin. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  go  to  sleep  if  the  surface 
of  the  skin  is  cold.  Bed  clothes  should  be  sufficiently 
warm,  but  not  too  warm  or  too  heavy.  Any  action 
which  will  cause  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  to  di- 
late will  diminish  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  brain. 
Thus,  warm  baths  are  apt  to  be  helpful  or  a  hot  foot 
bath  with  a  cold  cloth  at  the  back  of  the  neck; 
light  physical  exercise  will  draw  the  blood  to  the 
muscles  and  skin.  Taking  a  little  easily-digested 
food,  if  the  stomach  is  in  good  order,  will  often  draw 
some  of  the  blood  from  the  brain.  If  indigestion  is 
the  cause  of  sleeplessness,  effort  should,  of  course, 
be  directed  to  improving  that.  A  light  meal  should 
be  taken  at  night  in  such  cases. 

If  study  or  other  mental  work  must  continue  until 
bed  time,  light  exercise  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  such 
as  a  walk  of  half  a  mile  out  of  doors,  will  be  conducive 
to  a  good  night's  sleep. 

Preparation  for  bed  should  be  a  leisurely  process, 
so  that  the  mind  may  get  into  the  proper  condition 


ii2  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

for  sleep.  The  cares  of  the  day  must  be  banished. 
It  is  well  to  avoid  lying  awake  in  bed,  and  thus  estab- 
lishing the  habit.  If  sleep  does  not  come  after  ten 
of  fifteen  minutes,  it  is  better  to  get  up  again,  take 
a  few  gymnastic  exercises,  or  in  some  way  get  the 
mind  in  a  condition  for  rest,  care  being  taken  not  to 
become  chilled.  Sometimes  the  repetition  of  num- 
bers, monotonous  phrases,  counting  the  respira- 
tions while  breathing  deeply,  and  the  like,  may  induce 
sleep. 

The  whole  question  of  habit  depends  on  the  ner- 
vous system,  and  this  plays  a  large  part  in  the  daily 
life  of  every  one.  A  habit  is  a  more  or  less  automatic 
act  which  is  repeated  frequently,  requiring  each 
time  less  effort  from  the  will  to  accomplish  it  easily. 
The  process  of  acquiring  a  habit  may  be  likened  to 
the  making  of  a  path  through  a  heavy  fall  of  snow. 
The  first  person  to  walk  through  the  deep  snow  does 
so  slowly,  and  with  great  difficulty.  The  second  per- 
son finds  it  easier  to  follow  the  tracks  already  made, 
than  to  make  new  ones.  All  who  come  after,  find 
the  path  smoother  and  easier  to  travel,  and  would 
not  think  of  going  into  the  deep  snow  on  either  side. 
In  the  same  way,  the  acts  performed  by  the  body 
develop  an  easiest  path  along  certain  routes  of  the 
nerve  tissue  and  the  act  is  performed  automatically. 
This  is  true  of  the  mental  as  well  as  the  physical 
habits.  The  ease  with  which  a  habit  is  formed  de- 
pends upon  the  softness  and  the  plasticity  of  the 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM       113 

nerve  tissue ;  the  younger  the  person,  the  easier  are  the 
habits  formed.  Nearly  all  personal  habits  are  formed 
before  the  age  of  twenty  or  twenty-five.  It  is  in- 
creasingly difficult  to  form  new  habits  after  the  age 
of  thirty,  and  it  is,  therefore,  essential  that  we  form 
right  habits  of  eating,  breathing,  sitting,  standing, 
sleep,  and  so  on,  as  early  as  possible.  Considerable 
strength  of  mind  and  long  persistence  are  required 
to  break  oneself  of  an  evil  habit. 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 

We  have  already  considered  the  digestion  and  use 
of  food.  There  remains  to  be  spoken  of  the  how, 
what,  when,  how  much  to  eat,  and  the  care  of  the 
organs  of  digestion. 

Digestion  may  be  said  to  commence  with  the  gath- 
ering and  refining  of  food  stuffs,  and  to  be  continued 
by  the  art  of  cookery,  which  helps  to  make  food 
soluble  and  appetizing,  but  the  first  necessary  part 
of  digestion  in  the  body  is  mastication. 


CARE  OF  THE  TEETH 

The  art  of  preparation  of  foods  and  the  art  of 
cookery  in  removing  hard  substances  and  softening 
foods  has  diminished  the  necessity  for  powerful 
mastication,  so  that  the  teeth  of  civilized  people  are 
softer  and  more  liable  to  decay  than  those  of  primitive 
people  and  animals.  It  is  a  law  of  nature  that  organs 
or  functions  not  used  tend  to  degenerate,  hence  spe- 
cial care  of  the  teeth  is  necessary  to  preserve  them. 

A  tooth  consists  of  the  crown,  projecting  in  the 
mouth,  the  root  in  the  gum  and  the  narrow  portion 
between,  called  the  neck.  The  greater  part  of  the 
tooth  is  made  up  of  a  hard,  bony  substance,  called 
dentine.  On  the  top  and  sides  the  dentine  is  covered 
with  the  very  hard  polished  enamel,  which  serves  for 
protection.  The  root  is  covered  with  a  grayish 
substance  called  cement.     In  the  center  the  cavity 

114 


CARE  OF  THE   TEETH 


"5 


is  filled  with  blood  vessels  and  a  nerve,  which  enter 
through  a  small  opening  in  the  end  of  the  tooth. 

The  thirty-two  teeth  of  the  adult  begin  to  replace 
the  first  set  of  "milk  teeth"  at  the  sixth  to  eighth 
year.  The  four  innermost  permanent  teeth  —  the 
wisdom  teeth  —  do  not  appear  until  some  time 
between  the  fifteenth  and  twenty-fifth 
year;  in  some  cases  they  do  not  come  at 
all.  They  usually  are  very  soft,  and 
decay  easily. 

Irregularity  in  the  teeth  is  usually 
due  to  lack  of  development  of  the  jaw 
or  to  extra  large  teeth  coming  early. 
The  teeth  of  a  child  should  be  watched, 
and  if  they  tend  to  form  an  irregular 
line,  the  dentist  should  be  consulted  at  f^f's,'  Jaw 
once.  He  may  find  it  advisable  to  extract  m°nt.'  ' 
one  tooth  and  thus  allow  those  remaining 
to  come  in  evenly.  Especially  while  the  teeth  of  the 
child  are  developing,  the  diet  should  contain  some 
foods,  like  crusty  bread  and  hard  crackers,  that  will 
tend  to  develop  strong  teeth.  In  a  grown  person, 
even,  much  may  be  done  to  strengthen  naturally  soft 
teeth  by  providing  food  which  requires  vigorous 
mastication. 

Although  the  miller  and  the  cook  give  us  soft 
bread  instead  of  the  hard,  coarse,  ash-cake  of  primi- 
tive people,  and  the  art  of  stock  raising  and  of  the 
butcher  give  us  tender  meat,  instead  of  the  tough 


A  TOOTH 

.4,  Enamel;  B, 
Dentine;    C, 


Permanent 
Teeth 


n6 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Grinding 
Power 


flesh  of  the  wild  animals,  the  food  must  be  insalivated 
and  finely  divided  to  make  digestion  in  the  stomach 
quick  and  thorough.  The  chief  work  of  grinding 
comes   on   the   molars,  of  which   there   are   twelve, 


HALF  SET  OF  UPPER  AND  LOWER  TEETH 

1,  First  Incisors;  2,  Second  Incisors;  3,  Cuspids  or  Canines:  4,  First  Bi- 
cuspids or  Stomach,  5,  Second  Bicuspids;  6.  First  Molars; 
7,  Second  Molars;  8,  Third  Molars. 


Indigestion 

and  Poor 

Teeth 


counting  the  wisdom  teeth.  These  are  very  often 
lost  early,  leaving  only  eight.  The  loss  of  only  one 
of  these  diminishes  the  grinding  capacity  one-fourth, 
for  the  opposing  tooth  is  of  little  use.  The  loss  of 
two  molars  may  lessen  the  grinding  power  by  one- 
half.  The  triumphs  of  American  dentistry  are  such 
that  the  loss  of  a  few  teeth  or  even  an  entire  set  is 
not  regarded  as  a  serious  matter  by  most  people, 
yet  poor  teeth  are  responsible  for  a  much  greater  pro- 
portion of  digestive  troubles  than  is  often  supposed. 
A  good  dentist  can  accomplish  wonders,  but  he  can- 


CARE  OE  THE  TEETH 


"7 


not  equal  nature's  providing,  any  more  than  a  false 
foot  is  equal  to  the  natural  member. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the 
cause  of  caries  or  decay,  but  it  is  now  well  established 


Causes  of 
Decay 


COMPLETE  SET  OF  UPPER  TEETH 


that  the  main  cause  is  in  some  way  connected  with 
the  growth  of  the  various  micro-organisms  lodged  be- 
tween the  teeth.  As  long  as  the  enamel  is  intact  and 
the  neck  not  exposed,  decay  does  not  begin  readily, 
but  if  the  bacteria  find  lodgment  and  food,  the 
fermentation  and  decomposition  caused  by  their 
growth  tend  to  injure  even  the  enamel.  Once  the 
enamel  is  broken,  the  decay  of  the  dentine  goes  on 
rapidly. 


n  8 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Preserving 
the  Teeth 


Tooth 
Brushes 


Use  of 

Tooth 

Powder 


It  is  safe  to  say  that  if  the  growth  of  bacteria  on 
the  teeth  could  be  prevented  entirely,  even  the  weakest 
natural  set  could  be  preserved.  Absolute  cleanliness 
is  the  most  important  preventive  to  decay;  next 
comes  maintaining  a  high  degree  of  polish  so  that 
the  bacteria  will  find  no  place  of  lodgment.  The 
practice  of  picking  the  teeth  with  pins  or  other  metal 
instruments  tends  to  crack  the  enamel,  and  thus 
expose  the  dentine  to  the  action  of  bacteria.  Biting 
of  hard  substances,  as  in  cracking  nuts  with  the 
teeth,  or  the  constant  biting  off  of  threads  may  have 
the  same  effect.  Decay  is  favored  by  the  exposure 
of  the  neck  of  the  tooth  when  the  gums  are  loosened 
or  pushed  back  by  the  injudicious  use  of  the  tooth 
pick  or  a  stiff  bristle  brush. 

A  good  brush  is  the  most  effective  instrument  for 
cleaning  the  teeth.  The  bristles  should  be  stiff,  but 
not  too  stiff,  set  not  too  close,  and  the  tufts  on  the 
end  should  be  a  little  longer  to  facilitate  brushing 
between  the  teeth.  The  brush  should  be  discarded 
when  the  bristles  become  spread  and  so  apt  to  irritate 
the  gums. 

Precipitated  chalk  is  one  of  the  best  powders  to 
use,  because  it  is  sufficiently  coarse  to  produce  some 
scouring  action  and  cleanse  thoroughly,  yet  not  hard 
enough  to  injure  the  enamel.  Powdered  soap,  orris 
root,  and  flavoring  may  be  added  if  desired.  The 
brushing  should  be  forward  and  back,  and  up  and 
down  between  the  teeth.     The  inside  of  the  teeth 


CARE  OF  THE   TEETH 


n9 


should  be  brushed  as  carefully  as  the  outside.  The 
brush  should  be  used,  if  possible,  after  every  meal, 
and  especially  before  going  to  bed  at  night.  The 
night  cleansing  is  most  important,  for  during  the 
hours  of  sleep  the  bacteria  have  a  long  period  of  unin- 
terrupted activity.  The  mouth  provides  the  most 
favorable  condition  for  bacterial  growths  —  moisture, 
warmth  and  darkness,  and  if  there  is  food  present, 
they  multiply  enormously.  When  it  is  known  that 
with  some  kinds  of  bacteria  a  new  generation  may 
be  formed  every  twenty  minutes,  it  is  not  surprising 
to  learn  that  by  morning  the  uncleaned  mouth  may 
contain  literally  millions  of  bacteria.  No  wonder  that 
many  are  reminded  by  the  condition  of  the  mouth 
to  use  the  brush  in  the  morning. 

At  night,  then,  the  teeth  should  receive  their 
most  thorough  toilet.  The  use  of  the  brush  and  pow- 
der alone  will  seldom  remove  all  the  food  between 
the  teeth  and  a  fine  silk  thread,  or  better,  the  so-called 
"dental  floss,"  should  be  pulled  back  and  forth 
between  close-set  teeth,  care  being  taken  not  to  in- 
jure the  gums.  To  preserve  the  polish  of  the  teeth 
and  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  sordies  —  tartar — 
an  orange  wood  stick,  cut  in  the  shape  of  a  chisel, 
should  be  rubbed  up  and  down  between  the  teeth, 
with  a  little  powdered  pumice  stone,  several  times  a 
month. 

After  cleansing  the  teeth  thoroughly  the  mouth 
may  be   rinsed   with   an   antiseptic   solution.     This 


Cleaning 
the  Teeth 


Use  of  an 
Antiseptic 


120 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Visiting 
the  Dentist 


Fillings 


checks  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  somewhat,  but  is 
ineffective  if  food  is  left  between  the  teeth.  Any  of 
the  common  mouth  washes,  such  as  listerine  diluted 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  may  be  used ;  Seider's 
antiseptic  tablets  are  convenient.  While  thus  clean- 
ing the  mouth,  it  is  well  to  gargle  the  throat,  as  this 
tends  to  prevent  throat  troubles. 

It  is  economy  of  money,  time  and  pain,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  appearance  of  the  teeth,  to  visit  the 
dentist  frequently.  He  should  examine  and  clean 
the  teeth  at  least  once  every  six  months.  If  the 
teeth  are  subject  to  decay,  it  is  best  to  go  once  in 
three  or  four  months.  The  thorough  cleaning  which 
only  a  dentist  can  give  is  important,  for  small  cavities 
easily  filled,  are  frequently  discovered  which  would 
otherwise  pass  unnoticed  and  become  very  much 
larger.  Properly  done,  the  cleaning  can  do  no  harm, 
and  the  high  polish  will  lessen  the  chances  of  food 
and  accompanying  bacteria  finding  lodgment.  Some- 
times slight  defects  in  the  enamel  can  be  treated  with 
nitrate  of  silver  or  otherwise  without  filling. 

Of  fillings  gold  is  the  most  permanent,  the  amalgam 
or  silver  filling  darkens  the  teeth  and  can  be  used 
only  where  it  will  not  be  seen.  The  ideal  filling  would 
be  cement  if  a  substance  could  be  found  which  would 
be  permanent.  With  other  kinds  of  fillings,  the  cavity 
must  be  "under  cut"  to  hold  the  filling  in.  Cement 
has  sufficient  adhesion  so  that  the  undercut  is  not  so 
necessary,  and  not  nearly  as  deep  an  excavation  need 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING  121 

be  made.  When  the  teeth  are  very  soft,  cement 
may  prove  the  most  economical  filling  even  if  it  has 
to  be  renewed  every  year  or  two. 

WHEN,  HOW  MUCH  AND  WHAT  TO  EAT 

The  composition,  nutritive  value  and  digestibilty 
of  food  have  been  treated  in  the  lessons  on  Food  and 
Dietetics,  but  it  will  be  well  to  look  at  the  subject 
from  a  different  standpoint  here. 

By  providing  us  with  a  stomach,  nature  evidently  Meals 
intended  that  we  should  take  our  food  in  meals. 
Some  of  the  working  people  of  the  European  nations 
partake  of  food  five  times  daily,  and  those  who  attend 
the  theater  and  late  entertainments  often  may  add 
an  extra  meal  at  midnight,  but  for  most  of  us  three 
meals  a  day  seems  to  be  the  best  plan.  The  stomach 
usually  empties  itself  in  about  four  hours,  so  that 
breakfast  between  7  and  8,  lunch  between  12  and  1 
and  dinner  between  6  and  7  gives  it  some  rest  between 
periods  of  activity.  It  needs  this  rest,  for  the  stomach 
is  not  a  continuous  performance  organ,  like  the  heart. 
Moreover,  stomach  digestion  goes  on  in  stages.  As 
the  "psychic"  or  appetite  juices  decrease,  the  secre- 
tion brought  about  by  the  products  of  digestion  con- 
tinue, and  the  juice  secreted  is  adapted  to  the  food 
being  digested.  Eating  between  meals  may  upset 
the  balance. 

If  one  is  really  hungry,   there  is  no  objection  to      Eating 
taking  a  little  simple  food  once  between  meals,  pro-     M^anf6" 


122  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

vided  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  appetite  at  the 
regular  meal  time.  It  is  the  constant  eating  of  candy, 
etc.,  to  gratify  the  sense  of  taste  that  is  disastrous  to 
appetite  an  d  digestion.  Young  children  usually  need 
a  lunch  between  meals.  When  a  child  is  willing  to  eat 
bread  and  butter,  it  is  probable  that  he  needs  food. 
Those  of  weak  digestive  power  usually  manage  the 
same  amount  of  food  in  four  or  five  meals  better  than 
in  three. 

Regularity  as  to  meal  time  is  important.  If  for 
any  reason  one  goes  much  over  the  regular  meal  time, 
the  appetite  may  be  too  keen  and  there  is  an  inclina- 
tion to  overeat  and  eat  too  rapidly,  with  resulting 
digestive  disturbance.  Unless  there  is  a  regular 
lunch  to  prepare,  the  housekeeper  is  very  apt  to  be- 
come careless  and  eat  at  any  time  or  wait  until  there 
is  a  "sinking  feeling"  in  the  stomach. 
Time  for  For  the  secretion  of  the  digestive  juices  a  liberal 

supply  of  blood  is  needed,  so  that  very  active  exercise 
which  calls  blood  to  the  muscles  should  not  follow 
directly  after  the  taking  of  a  full  meal.  Moderate 
activity,  like  slow  walking  after  a  meal,  is  without 
much  effect,  and  may  be  favorable.  In  the  same  way, 
bathing  should  not  immediately  precede  or  follow 
eating  a  full  meal,  but  a  short  cleansing  bath  has  less 
marked  effect  on  the  distribution  of  the  blood  than 
severe  exercise  and  is.  usually  attended  with  no 
unfavorable  results.  We  should  not  take  a  full 
meal  directly  after  the  loss  of  considerable  water 


Eating 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING  123 

through  perspiration.  At  such  times  the  proportion 
of  water  in  the  blood  is  lessened  and  the  secretion  of 
gastric  juice  is  apt  to  be  scanty.  We  naturally 
drink  water  at  such  times,  from  the  call  of  thirst,  and 
in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  blood  has  regained 
its  normal  composition.  We  should  not  partake  of 
a  full  meal  when  ws  are  very  tired,  either  physically 
or  mentally.  A  rest  of  half  an  hour  before  eating 
will  put  the  system  in  more  favorable  condition.  This 
is  one  argument  in  favor  of  having  the  principal  meal 
at  night  when  the  active  work  of  the  day  is  over. 
Then  there  is  time  to  take  the  meal  slowly  with  full 
enjoyment. 

As  to  how  much  to  eat,  the  appetite  is  the  best  how  Much 
guide  we  have.  Indeed,  an  intelligently  directed 
appetite  is  a  very  good  guide.  Pawlow's  researches 
show  very  clearly  how  necessary  it  is  that  food  should 
be  eaten  with  appetite.  If  the  appetite  does  not  call 
for  food,  little  food  should  be  eaten.  As  Pawlow 
points  out,  however,  the  appetite  may  be  disarranged 
because  of  some  disorder  or  mental  condition  when 
the  body  really  needs  food.  After  a  few  mouthfuls 
the  appetite  develops,  or  as  the  saying  goes,  "appetite 
comes  with  eating."  If  there  is  a  continued  impair- 
ment of  the  appetite,  the  warning  should  be  heeded, 
its  cause  should  be  found  and  conditions  changed. 
Meanwhile,  little  food  need  be  eaten.  The  body 
usually  has  sufficient  stored  food  material  to  supply 
deficiencies  for  a  day  or  longer  if  necessary. 


124 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Food  and 
Exercise 


Standard 
Diets 


From  the  physical  standpoint  alone,  the  question 
of  the  total  amount  of  food  required  is  determined 
solely  by  the  heat  and  energy  output  of  the  body. 
This  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
found  very  accurately  in  the  respiration  calorimeter 
under  different  conditions.  The  outgo  beyond  a 
certain  minimum  depends  upon  the  muscular  exer- 
cise taken.     See  table,  page  49. 

The  amount  of  heat  lost  is  dependent  chiefly  on  the 
skin  surface,  for  most  of  the  heat  of  the  body  escapes 
through  the  skin.  The  weight  or  contents  of  bodies 
increases  faster  proportionately  than  the  surface 
area.  That  is,  a  small  orange  has  more  peel  in  pro- 
portion to  its  contents  than  a  large  orange.  The 
body  of  a  child  has  a  larger  surface  area  than  that 
of  an  adult  in  proportion  to  the  weight.  A  tall  thin 
person  has  a  greater  skin  surface  in  proportion  to 
weight  than  a  short,  fat  person. 

Taking  into  consideration  all  these  factors,  it  would 
be  easy  from  the  table  on  page  49  to  calculate  to  a 
nicety  the  number  of  calories  of  food  required  to 
keep  the  body  in  condition,  as  the  fuel  and  energy 
value  of  all  foods  has  been  determined.  Such  cal- 
culations, however,  would  be  only  of  general  value, 
for  although  rules  may  be  laid  down  for  averages, 
individuals  differ  so  greatly  in  the  amount  of  food 
required  that  standard  dietaries  and  the  like  are  of 
little  value  except  for  comparison.  It  is  a  matter  of 
every-day  experience  that  two  persons  of  about  the 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 


125 


same  weight  and  height  and  taking  about  the  same 
amount  of  muscular  exercise  need  very  different 
quantities  of  food  to  keep  them  in  the  condition  of 
health.  One  person  may  put  on  fat  on  a  diet  which 
would  be  insufficient  to  keep  up  the  body  weight  of 
another.  Inheritance  is  a  large  factor.  One  person 
may  be  able  to  digest  and  assimilate  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  food  eaten  than  another.  It  is  the 
amount  of  food  digested  and  assimilated  which  is 
of  use  to  the  body. 

However,  people  are  much  more  alike  than  they 
are  different  and  it  is  important  to  know  the  com- 
position and  the  nutritive  value  of  foods.  The 
following  table  gives  the  food  value  (fuel  and  energy 
value)  of  a  number  of  common  foods  as  eaten :  that  is 
cooked,  if  they  are  cooked,  and  without  refuse  or  the 
inedible  part.  The  figures  only  represent  averages 
for  the  composition  varies  greatly,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  water  decreasing  the  food  value  and  fat 
greatly  increasing  it.  The  value  is  given  in  calories 
per  ounce.  The  volume  of  a  pint  equals  about  16 
ounces  and  a  measuring  cup  8  ounces  and  two  level 
tablespoonfuls  about  an  ounce  of  many  foods.  A  cubic 
inch  of  butter  or  meat  and  a  slice  of  bread  half  an 
inch  thick  weighs  about  one  ounce. 


Personal 
Peculiarities 


Nutritive 
Value  of 
Food 


126 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


FUEL  AND  ENERGY  VALUE  OF  FOODS  AS  EATEN 

Calories  Calories 

Food  Per  Ounce  Food  Per  Ounce 

Lard,  salad  oil,  etc 250    Indian  Pudding 52 

Butter 225    Eggs  (boiled) 48 


Nuts    (almonds,    peanuts, 

pecans,  walnuts)  .avg.  .  185 

Chocolate  (bitter) 179 

Chocolate     nut     candy 

(about) 140 

Cheese  (cream) 123 

Crackers  and  cookies 119 

Sugar 116 

Plain  candy 112 

Cake 105 

Lamb  (broiled  chops) ....  104 

Dates  and  raisins 10 1 

Beef  (roast) 10 1 

Mutton  (roast  leg) 89 

Olives  (green  pickled  ) .  .  .  87 

Mince  Pie 85 

Ham  (boiled) 83 

Broiled  Tenderloin  of  Beef  8 1 

Apple  Pie  .« . 79 

Bread  (white) 76 

Bread  (whole  wheat) 72 

Sweet  Potatoes 58 

Cream 57 

Pudding,  rice,  tapioca. ...  52 
Note. 


Fish  (baked  blue) 42 

Baked  Beans 35 

Bananas 29 

Grapes 28 

Potatoes  (boiled) 28 

Macaroni  (cooked) 26 

Hash 24 

Milk  (whole) 20 

Apples  19 

Oat  Meal  Mush 19 

Chicken  Soup(home  made)  1 8 

Peas  (green  canned).    ...  16 

Spinach  (cooked) .    16 

Oysters 15 

Oranges 15 

Soup  Stock 12 

String       Beans,       Onions 

Beets,  Squash 12 

Musk  melon 12 

Strawberries 11 

Milk  (skimmed) 10 

Tomatoes  and  Lettuce.  .  .  6 

Celery  and  Cucumber.  ...  5 

Cereal  Coffee  (infusion) .  .  2 


From  the  above  table,  in  connection  with  that  on 
page  49,  it  will  be  easy  to  get  a  general  idea  of  the  quantity  of 
food  required.  For  example,  with  eight  hours  of  sleep,  six 
hours  of  rest,  and  ten  hours  of  light  exercise,  a  man  of  a  body 
weight  of  154  pounds  would  require  about  2,800  calories.  (See 
page  49.)  A  woman  weighing  a  little  over  100  pounds  would 
need  1,900  calories.  This  would  be  supplied  by  14  ounces  of 
chocolate  candy,  or  about  a  pound  loaf  of  bread  and  three  ounces 
of  butter,  and  so  on. 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 


127 


There  are  many  people  "blessed  with  a  good  appe- 
tite;" such  are  apt  to  eat  too  much.  Indeed,  with 
abundant  food  supply,  which  the  art  of  the  cook  has 
made  most  tempting,  and  because  of  rapid  eating, 
very  many  people  eat  too  muck,  especially  those  of 
sedentary  habits.  We  must  eat  only  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  the  appetite,  not  to  gratify  the  sense  of 
taste.  It  is  only  one  who  has  much  manual  labor  to 
perform  that  needs  "three  square  meals  a  day."  A 
light  breakfast,  a  light  lunch,  and  a  moderate  dinner 
will  keep  others  in  a  better  condition. 

If  overeating  does  not  ruin  the  digestion,  the  per- 
son is  apt  to  grow  fat,  especially  after  middle  life. 
Although  heredity  makes  a  great  difference,  accum- 
ulation of  much  fat  is  always  a  proof  that  too  much 
food  has  been  eaten  or  that  there  has  been  to  little 
physical  activity  —  usually  both. 

Fat  is  so  much  stored  food  material  —  lifeless  mat- 
ter. The  only  way  it  can  be  reduced  is  by  oxidizing 
it  in  the  body  —  burning  it  up.  This  can  be  done 
only  by  lessening  the  food  supply  and  by  taking  very 
active  physical  exercise.  Exercise  which  produces 
active  perspiration  is  most  effective.  Putting  on  of 
fat  gives  a  disinclination  for  active  exertion  and  so 
the  tendency  is  for  the  fat  to  accumulate.  Although 
there  is  no  evidence  that  fat  may  be  made  from  the 
proteid  of  food  eaten,  and  if  the  food  could  be  made 
up  entirely  of  proteids  (which  is  impossible),  the 
amount  of  fat  would  not  increase,  but  it  cannot  be 


Over 

Eating 


Reducing 
Fat 


128  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

diminished  unless  the  physical  activity  calls  for  more 
fuel  and  energy  than  is  contained  in  the  food  eaten. 
The  diet  in  obesity,  then,  would  consist  of  such  foods 
as  have  low  fuel  and  energy  value.  A  concentrated 
food  means  a  food  that  contains  little  water.  Fats 
have  nearly  2X  times  as  much  fuel  and  energy  value 
as  proteids  and  carbohydrates.  Foods  that  contain 
a  large  amount  of  water  are  vegetables  and  fruits, 
except  dried  fruits.  A  certain  bulk  has  to  be  taken  to 
satisfy  the  calls  of  the  stomach  and  to  prevent  con- 
stipation. It  is  usually  recommended  that  the  diet 
consist  largely  of  proteid  foods,  especially  lean  meat. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  proteids  are  quickly  burned  up. 
However,  if  the  diet,  even  made  up  chiefly  of  pro- 
teids, is  liberal,  sufficient  energy  will  be  furnished  to 
the  body  and  none  of  the  body  fat  will  be  consumed ; 
consequently  the  total  fuel  value  of  the  food  is  the 
chief  consideration,  so  far  as  diet  is  concerned,  if  fat 
is  to  be  decreased. 

Less  clothing  should  be  worn,  as  low  external  tem- 
perature increases  the  heat  output  of  the  body,  and 
so  body  fat  is  consumed  if  the  diet  is  light.  Less 
sleep  should  be  taken,  for  during  sleep  the  body  uses 
less  than  a  fourth  the  energy  used  in  active  exercise. 
increasing  The  conditions  for  increasing  fat  are  just  the  re- 
verse. The  diet  should  be  liberal  and  consist  of 
easily-digested  food,  with  abundance  of  fats  and 
carbohydrates.  Long  hours  of  sleep  and  rest  should 
be  taken;  there  should  be  freedom  from  worry  and 


Fat 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 


129 


nervous  wear  and  tear;  clothing  and  surroundings 
should  be  warm ;  sufficient  out-of-door  exercise  should 
be  taken,  to  give  a  keen  appetite.  It  is  often  more 
difficult  to  put  on  fat  than  to  lessen  the  amount, 
as  heredity  has  such  great  influence.  A  complete 
change  of  life  may  be  required  to  make  any  difference 
in  body  weight. 

Somewhat  more  food  is  required  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  because  of  the  greater  heat  output  of  the 
body,  but  if  thicker  clothing  is  worn  and  one  is  not 
exposed  to  any  great  extent  to  out-of-door  tempera- 
ture, no  more  food  is  needed  than  in  spring  or  fall. 

During  very  hot  weather  the  quantity  of  food 
should  be  considerably  diminished,  especially  pro- 
teids,  and  more  liquids  should  be  taken  so  that  per- 
spiration may  be  active  and  not  diminish  the  pro- 
portion of  water  in  the  blood. 

It  has  been  found,  strangely  enough,  that  when  the 
external  temperature  is  very  high,  the  body  furnishes 
more  heat  than  at  ordinary  temperature.  In  other 
words,  oxidation  is  more  active,  the  bodily  fires 
burn  more  fiercely.  This  increase  is  brought  on  by 
the  proteids,  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  the  ratio  of 
20  to  10  to  7.  The  increased  heat  production  may 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  body  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  cause  a  "heat  stroke"  if  it  is  not  lost  suffi- 
ciently rapidly.  During  hot  weather  the  appetite 
calls  for  less  food,  for  much  water  and  succulent 
vegetables,  as  salad  plants  and  fruits.     It  is  recom- 


Winter 
Diet 


Hot 

■Weather 

Diet 


Heat 
Stroke 


to  Eat 


130  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

mended  that  the  total  amount  of  food  eaten  should 
be  less  in  fuel  value  than  the  heat  output  of  the 
body.  Under  these  conditions,  some  of  the  body 
fat  is  used,  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  most 
people  lose  weight  during  a  long  period  of  hot  weather. 
Here  is  the  probable  reason  that  exercise  inducing 
perspiration  is  found  to  be  most  effective  in  the 
reduction  of  weight  in  obesity. 
what  As  to  what  to  eat,  again  the  educated  appetite  is  a 

trustworthy  guide.  We  should  eat  the  things  which 
we  find  palatable,  for  these  will  have  a  better  chance 
for  thorough  digestion.  This  is  not  saying,  how- 
ever, that  all  food  eaten  with  enjoyment  will  be  per- 
fectly digested.  When  the  digestive  organs  are  in 
good  condition,  a  reasonable  amount  of  all  foods  that 
have  been  found  by  experience  to  be  wholesome 
should  be  disposed  of  without  trouble  provided 
only,  that  the  food  be  properly  cooked  and  properly 
eaten.  No  human  stomach  can  be  expected  to 
digest  pies  and  doughnuts  as  they  are  sometimes 
made,  but  they  may  be  so  cooked  that  any  one  in 
health  should  be  able  to  eat  small  quantities  without 
discomfort.  The  stomach  needs  some  exercise,  like 
all  the  other  organs  of  the  body.  The  constant 
eating  of  easily  digested  and  predigested  foods  will 
weaken  the  digestive  organs,  just  as  lack  of  exercise 
will  weaken  the  muscles.  While  the  digestive  organs 
should  be  capable  of  taking  care  of  small  quantities 
of  difficultly  digested  food,  the  whole  diet  should  not 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 


131 


consist  of  foods  known  to  be  digested  with  difficulty. 
A  little  fried  food  occasionally,  skillfully  cooked, 
should  cause  no  trouble,  but  a  constant  diet  of  the 
product  of  the  frying  pan  may  be  expected  to  ruin 
any  digestion. 

Many  people  find  that  certain  foods  disagree  with 
them  at  times,  such  as  lobster,  sausages,  strawberries 
apples,  cucumbers.  Such  personal  peculiarities  must, 
of  course,  be  heeded,  but  the  list  of  forbidden  foods 
ought  to  be  a  small  one.  Those  who  will  take  little 
or  no  exercise  find  their  list  of  indigestible  food  con- 
stantly increasing.  It  is  far  better  to  take  sufficient 
exercise  to  keep  the  digestive  powers  up  to  a  reason- 
able level. 

What  we  like  depends  upon  our  education;  we 
usually  prefer  throughout  life  the  foods  which  we 
learned  to  like  in  youth.  It  is  desirable  that  we  develop 
omnivorous  tastes  while  young,  for  the  appetite 
calls  for  variety.  Children  are  very  apt  to  acquire 
unreasonable  tastes  in  food,  and  while  they  should 
not  be  forced  to  eat  food  that  is  distasteful,  still  with 
a  little  tact,  good  food  habits  can  be  formed.  A 
child  will  usually  consent  to  eat  a  little  of  a  new  food 
without  undue  family  disturbance  if  favorite  foods 
are  withheld  until  the  mouthful  or  two  is  disposed  of. 
After  a  few  times,  he  will  often  call  for  more  than  a 
little  of  formerly  despised  foods. 

As  we  have  seen,  it  makes  little  difference  whether 
the  energy  of  the  body  is  supplied  by  fats  or  by  car- 


132 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Amount 
of  Proteid 


Meat 
Eating 


bohydrates  or  by  proteids.  If  the  composition  of 
foods  is  known,  we  can  safely  leave  the  appetite  and 
experience  to  the  subconscious  selection  of  the  pro- 
portion needed  for  the  body  in  health. 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  in  any  diet 
which  we  would  select,  if  free  to  choose,  we  would 
obtain  sufficient  proteid  to  furnish  that  required  for 
cellular  repair,  so  we  need  have  little  fear  that  the 
diet  will  be  deficient  in  proteid.  We  may,  however, 
easily  take  too  much.  Although  eggs,  milk,  cheese, 
beans,  and  peas  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of 
proteid,  there  is  not  much  likelihood  that  we  shall  eat 
in  excess  of  any  of  them.  The  proportion  of  proteid 
in  meat  is  much  greater,  and  very  many  people,  espe- 
cially those  of  sedentary  habits,  undoubtedly  eat  too 
much  meat.  This  comes  about  because  most  people 
like  meat,  and  because  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  make 
a  good  roast  or  steak  unpalatable  by  poor  cooking. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  proteid  foods  have  a  decid- 
edly stimulating  effect  on  the  organism.  In  case  of 
general  debility,  anaemia,  and  in  wasting  diseases 
such  as  consumption,  this  stimulus  is  just  what  the 
body  requires,  but  for  those  leading  inactive  lives, 
there  may  be  too  much  stimulation.  It  is  only 
oxidation  that  is  stimulated ;  elimination  may  not  keep 
pace,  and  the  accumulation  of  wastes  brings  about 
unfavorable  conditions.  Headaches  and  other  nerve 
troubles  are  favored  by  too  much  meat  eating  more 
often  than  commonly  known. 


HYGIENE  OF  FEEDING 


133 


The  diet  of  the  growing  child  and  youth  needs  to 
be  high  in  proteid. 

Vegetarianism  has  been  advocated  as  a  cure-all, 
and  for  those  who  eat  too  much  or  whose  diet  con- 
sists too  largely  of  proteids,  it  is  undeniably  helpful, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  (except  the  ethical 
argument  that  man  should  not  take  animal  life  for 
his  maintainance)  that  all  use  of  meat  should  be 
abandoned. 

To  quote  from  Professor  Chittenden,  whose  work 
gives  a  strong  argument  for  less  meat  eating:  "I  am 
inclined  to  emphasize  the  desirability  of  using  com- 
mon sense  in  the  application  of  dietetic  rules,  remem- 
bering that  man  is  an  omnivorous  animal,  and  that 
Nature  evidently  never  intended  him  to  subsist 
solely  on  a  'cereal  diet,'  or  on  any  specific  form  of 
food  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  On  matters  of 
diet  every  man  should  be  a  law  unto  himself,  using 
judgment  and  knowledge  to  the  best  of  his  ability, 
reinforced  by  his  own  personal  experiences.  Vege- 
tarianism may  have  its  virtues,  as  too  great  an  indul- 
gence in  flesh  foods  may  have  its  serious  side,  but  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  sound  physiological  reason  for 
the  complete  exclusion  of  one  class  of  food-stuffs, 
under  ordinary  conditions  of  life." 


Vegetarianism 


Common 
Sense  in 
Diet 


134  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

DRINK 

water  As  to  drink,  pure  water  is  the  best  drink  we  have, but 
impure  water  is  very  dangerous  as  it  may  pass  through 
the  stomach  without  becoming  mingled  with  the 
hydrochloric  acid,  which  destroys  nearly  all  disease 
germs.  The  living  tissue  contains  nearly  nine-tenths 
water,  i.  e.,  the  muscles  87  per  cent,  the  glands,  like 
the  liver,  86  per  cent,  the  blood  90  per  cent.  Many 
people,  especially  women,  do  not  drink  sufficient 
water.  There  is  a  feeling  that  water  taken  at  meal 
times  will  dilute  the  gastric  juices,  and  so  interfere 
with  digestion.  Pawlow  found  that  water  is  one  of 
the  few  substances  that  stimulates  the  secretion  of  the 
gastric  juices,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  any  quan- 
tity less  than  three  pints  (an  impossible  amount)  helps 
rather  than  hinders  digestion.  It  is  well  to  take  a 
glass  or  two  of  water  in  the  morning  before  breakfast, 
one  or  two  glasses  with  each  meal  and  between  meals, 
if  desired.  The  water  passes  rather  quickly  out  of 
the  stomach  and  is  absorbed  into  the  blood  in  the 
intestines,  and  soon  after  is  secreted  by  the  kidneys. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  an  imperceptible 
amount  of  energy  is  required  for  the  absorption  and 
elimination  of  water,  and  it  has  been  found  that 
increasing  the  quantity  of  water  increases  the  amount 
of  urea  and  other  waste  products  eliminated. 

Drinking  water  with  meals  is  favorable  to  digestion, 
but  this  is  by  no  means  the  same  thing  as  taking 
water   with  food.     As  we   have   seen    (page  53),  dry 


DRINK  135 

foods  should  be  chewed  until  the  saliva  has  moistened 
them  sufficiently  to  make  swallowing  easy,  for  in 
addition  to  the  digestive  action  of  the  saliva,  the 
taste  of  foods  increases  the  flow  of  the  "psychic 
juices."  If  the  food  is  washed  down  with  water  or 
other  liquids,  it  will  not  have  nearly  as  good  a  chance 
of  being  easily  digested. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  does  not  seem  to 
make  very  much  difference.  Ice  water  is  not  harm- 
ful, provided  it  is  sipped  slowly,  and  so  becomes 
warm  before  entering  the  stomach.  Hot  water  is 
sometimes  recommended  in  cases  of  indigestion, 
but  in  reality  the  heat  has  very  little  effect.  It 
does  not  cause  an  increased  flow  of  gastric  juice 
but  may  increase  the  movements  of  the  stomach 
somewhat. 

Of  the  beverages,  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa,  tea  and  Tea 
coffee  contain  the  alkaloid  caffein  and  the  cocoa  a  cocoa 
substance  very  similar,  called  theobromin.  These  are 
substances  something  like  uric  acid  in  chemical 
composition,  and  so  undesirable  in  certain  disease 
conditions.  For  most  people  a  cup  of  coffee  with 
the  breakfast  adds  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  meal  and  for 
that  reason  may  help  digestion.  While  one  cup  of 
coffee  may  be  favorable,  two  cups  may  be  decidedly 
harmful.  Here,  as  in  all  else,  temperance  should  be 
the  rule.  Tea,  coffee,  and  to  some  extent  cocoa  have 
a  stimulating  effect  on  the  nerves.  Some  people  can 
take   coffee   and  not   tea,   others   the   reverse.     We 


136  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

usually  know  whether  tea  or  coffee  is  harmful  or  not, 
and  we  certainly  should  have  the  strength  of  mind 
to  refrain  from  one  or  the  other  if  we  cannot  take 
it  with  impunity.  Few  people  leading  sedentary 
lives  can  take  either  tea  or  coffee  three  times  a  day 
without  harmful  results. 
Alcohol  Alcohol   is    commonly    regarded    as    a   stimulant. 

At  first  it  increases  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  skin  and 
brain  and  gives  a  feeling  of  warmth  and  of  general  well- 
being.  According  to  the  latest  experiments,  alcohol 
brings  about  the  increase  of  the  flow  of  blood  to  the 
skin  and  brain  by  inhibiting,  paralyzing,  the  action'  of 
the  vasco-constrictor  nerves.  In  the  brain  it  loosens 
up  or  gives  freedom  from  restraint.  In  small  quan- 
tities alcohol  can  without  doubt  be  taken  without 
harm,  but  it  is  a  powerful  drug,  and  as  the  system 
adapts  itself  to  abnormal  conditions,  larger  amounts 
are  required  to  produce  its  effect  and  the  appetite 
demands  more  and  more.  Large  quantities  are  disas- 
trous to  every  function  of  the  body.  The  evils  of 
alcoholic  intemperance  do  not  have  to  be  enlarged 
upon ;  without  doubt  the  world  would  be  far  better 
off  if  there  were  not  such  a  substance  as  alcohol,  even 
though  physicians  may  sometimes  use  it  to  advantage. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  SKIN  AND  ITS  MODIFICATIONS 


The  skin  is  the  protecting  covering  of  the  body,  and 
the  hair  and  nails  come  from  modifications  of  its 
structure.  The  mucous  membrane  is  similar  to  the 
skin  in  structure,  but  without  its  outer  horny  layer. 
(See  page  42.)  Although  the  outer  skin  contains 
many  "pores,  "  sweat  glands  and  sebaceous  glands  — 
it  is  not  porous.  On  the  contrary,  the  skin  is  practi- 
cally water  tight  from  the  outside  inwards.  Aside 
from  certain  mercury  preparations,  the  skin  cannot 
be  made  to  absorb  a  material  amount  of  any  substance, 
although  the  outer  covering  takes  up  oils  and  other 
matters  to  some  extent.  The  mucous  membrane, 
however,  in  some  parts  is  "porous." 

The  outer  skin  is  constantly  shedding  its  outer 
layer  of  horny  cells;  the  salts  dissolved  in  the  per- 
spiration are  deposited  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
mouths  of  the  sweat  glands,  the  oily  material  secreted 
by  the  sebaceous  glands  accumulates,  and  may  stop 
up  the  opening,  causing  pimples;  and  the  secretions 
contain  odorous  substances ;  so  for  health  and  decency 
bathing  is  required. 

BATHS 

The  chief  use  of  the  bath  is  for  cleanliness,  but  it  may 
also  have  other  hygienic  effects.  The  frequency  of 
bathing  from  the  standpoint  of  cleanliness  depends  on 
the  occupation  and  environment.  Some  people  require 
a  daily  cleansing  bath,  while  with  others  one  or  two 

137 


The  Skin 

"Water 

Tight 


Cleansing 
Bath 


Baths 


138  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

a  week  is  sufficient.  Too  frequent  bathing  with  soap 
and  warm  water  may  have  unfavorable  effects,  as 
it  is  not  well  to  carry  away  all  the  oil  of  the  skin  which 
is  needed  to  keep  it  soft  and  pliable. 
Effect  of  The  stimulating  effects  of  bathing  depend  on  (1) 
Kinds6 of  the  temperature  of  the  water  used,  (2)  kind  of  bath, 
(3)  the  time  of  day,  and  (4)  the  duration  of  the  bath. 

(1)  Very  cold  water  produces  a  shock  and  either 
depresses  or  overstimulates,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  individual.  Hot  water  always  produces  a 
sedative  and  depressing  effect.  Cool  water  produces 
a  tonic  effect,  and  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  is  the 
only  temperature  that  should  be  used  for  bathing. 
The  degree  of  coolness  which  will  produce  the  great- 
est benefit  varies  with  different  individuals  and  in 
different  seasons. 

(2)  The  kind  of  bath  used  depends  on  the  vol- 
ume and  the  force  of  the  water,  which  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  body.  Great  force  and  large  volume 
produce  a  shock,  and  thus  tend  to  overstimulate. 
The  douche,  large  shower  with  high  pressure,  and 
the  plunge,  represent  baths  with  great  force  and 
large  volume  of  water.  Applying  water  to  a  small 
surface  at  a  time,  as  in  a  sponge  or  hand  bath,  pro- 
duces only  local  effects,  because  the  volume  and  the 
force  are  not  sufficient  to  stimulate  ^the  whole  body. 
A  needle  spray,  mild  shower,  or  a  sponge  bath  with  a 
very  large  sponge  tend  to  produce  general  tonic  effect. 

(3)  A  bath  taken  just  after  rising,  when  the  func- 


BATHS  139 

tions  of  the  body  are  greatly  reduced  in  activity,  will 
produce  far  greater  effects  than  later  in  the  day  after 
some  vigorous  muscular  exercise. 

(4)  A  cold  shower  bath  of  two  minutes'  duration 
would  ordinarily  have  a  tonic  effect  on  a  healthy 
individual  after  exercise,  but  the  same  bath  continued 
for  eight  or  ten  minutes  would  have  a  decidedly  de- 
pressing effect.  A  warm  bath  of  five  minutes'  dura- 
tion would  have  a  soothing  effect,  but  if  continued 
for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  it  would  prove  depressing. 

We  have,  then,  four  important  principles  govern-  stimulating 
ing  the  question  of  bathing.  These  principles  are 
closely  related  and  overlap  each  other.  For  example, 
a  plunge  in  luke-warm  water  in  the  early  morning 
would  not  stimulate  any  more  than  a  cold  sponge 
bath  at  the  same  hour,  and  a  cool  sponge  bath  in 
the  early  morning  would  produce  as  much  effect  as 
a  cold  shower  or  plunge  bath  in  the  late  afternoon. 
Knowing  the  general  effects  of  temperature,  pressure, 
and  volume  of  water,  time  of  day,  and  duration  of 
bath,  we  can  arrange  the  conditions  with  a  view  to 
securing  a  tonic  effect.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
rules  for  everybody,  but,  fortunately,  every  one  can 
find  out  for  himself  what  is  the  temperature,  kind 
of  bath,  and  duration  of  bath  which  will  be  most 
beneficial  for  him.  This  is  shown  by  the  after-effects 
of  the  bath.  If  the  bath  has  produced  a  tonic  effect, 
the  individual  will  feel  warm,  wide  awake,  comfort- 
able,  and  ready  for  work,  and    there  will  not  be  a 


140 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


The 

Morning 

Bath 


Salt  'Water 
Bathing 


Sun  Baths 


reaction  of  depression  one  or  two  hours  later.  On 
general  principles,  the  most  favorable  conditions  for 
a  daily  hygienic  bath  would  be  a  cool  or  cold  shower 
bath,  following  some  vigorous  muscular  exercise 
about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  If  the  bath 
is  taken  immediately  after  rising,  the  temperature, 
volume,  and  force  of  water  should  be  moderate. 

Most  people  are  benefited  by  a  cool  bath  every  morn- 
ing. While  it  takes  considerable  courage  to  indulge 
in  a  tub  bath  of  very  cold  water,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  water  be  of  the  same  temperature  as  it  comes 
from  the  tap.  Although  a  tub  or  shower  bath  is  not 
available  for  every  one,  all  having  a  bowl  of  water  may 
indulge  in  a  sponge  or  hand  bath,  and  the  brisk  rub 
afterwards.  The  stimulus  of  the  reaction  sends  the 
blood  coursing  through  the  system,  the  respiration 
is  deepened,  and  the  active  exercise  of  rubbing  gives 
one  a  good  start  for  the  work  of  the  day. 

Salt  water  bathing  is  supposed  by  most  people  to 
be  more  beneficial  than  fresh  water  bathing,  because 
of  the  presence  of  salt  in  the  water.  It  is  true  that 
sea  bathing  is  more  exhilarating  than  lake  or  river 
bathing,  but  the  exhilaration  comes  from  the  sea 
breeze,  the  greater  coolness  of  the  water,  and  the 
movement  of  the  waves;  the  presence  of  salt  in  the 
water  has  no  effect.  The  use  of  rock  salt  in  the  bath 
tub  at  home  is  a  waste  of  time  and  money. 

Another  most  valuable  tonic  for  the  skin  is  the 
sun  bath.      The  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  on  the  skin 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR 


141 


is  appreciated  only  by  those  who  have  tried  it.  The 
skin  should  be  exposed  for  a  short  time  at  first,  in 
order  to  avoid  burning.  Gradually  the  time  may  be 
increased,  until  the  skin  is  of  a  rich  brown  color. 
The  good  effect  of  sun  baths  is  not  limited  to  the  skin, 
but  the  whole  body,  and  the  nervous  system  in  par- 
ticular, is  greatly  benefited. 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR 

The  hair  and  hair  sheath  are  both  modifications 
of  the  outer  skin.  Each  hair  root  has  a  small  net- 
work of  blood  vessels  supplying  it 
with  nourishment.  The  skin  form- 
ing the  scalp  is  very  thick,  owing 
to  its  large  number  of  hair  roots 
and  blood  vessels.  The  amount 
and  quality  of  the  hair,  like  nearly 
all  the  physical  characteristics,  is 
largely  a  matter  of  inheritance. 
Its  condition  depends  indirectly  on 
the  general  health  and  directly 
on  the  circulation  in  the  scalp. 
When  the  scalp  is  thin  and  tightly 
drawn,  the  circulation  of  the  scalp 
is  apt  to  be  poor,  the  nourishment 
of  the  hair  roots  inadequate,  and 
the  hair  suffers.  Sometimes  the 
amount  of  the  hair  diminishes  rapidly  in  a  few  weeks 
because  of  acute  illness  or  a  general  low  condition. 


A,  Hair;  B,  Sneath; 
G,  Polical;  Z>,  Hair 
Root:  E,  Sebaceous 
Gland;  F,  Muscle. 


142 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


With  the  return  of  general  bodily  health,  the  hair 
roots  secure  sufficient  nourishment,  and  the  hair 
resumes  its  normal  growth. 
Dandruff  The  presence  of  dandruff  is  perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon accompanying  condition  in  the  falling  of  the 
hair.  Cleanliness  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
health  of  the  scalp,  and  dandruff  is  an  indication 
of  poor  condition.  The  best  way  to  keep  the  head 
free  from  dandruff  is  by  the  use  of  a  stiff  brush  night 
and  morning,  and  by  washing  the  scalp  with  soap  and 
water  two  or  three  times  a  month,  or  as  often  as  ne- 
cessary. A  stiff  brush  should  be  used  for  brushing 
the  hair,  with  the  bristles  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
of  the  brush  being  easily  cleaned.  Three  to  five 
minutes,  vigorous  brushing  night  and  morning  will 
prevent  dandruff  from  accumulating,  and  will  stim- 
ulate the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  scalp.  If 
the  scalp  is  very  tender,  a  softer  brush  should  be 
used.  The  comb  should  have  long,  blunt  teeth,  set 
not  too  close  together;  sharp,  rough  teeth  tend  to 
scratch  the  scalp  and  injure  the  hair. 

Some  people  hesitate  to  comb  or  brush  the  hair, 
any  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  dress  it, 
because  by  so  doing  some  of  the  hair  comes  out. 
If  the  right  kind  of  a  brush  is  used  with  gentleness, 
the  hair  which  falls  in  brushing  and  combing  is  prac- 
tically all  dead  hair  which  ought  to  be  removed. 
Shampooing  The  frequency  of  shampooing  depends  on  the  in- 

dividual.    With  some,  once  a  month  is  often  enough, 


Brushing 
the  Hair 


CARE  OF  THE  HAIR  143 

and  others  require  a  thorough  washing  once  a  week. 
Any  good  toilet  soap  will  serve  the  purpose.  The 
scalp  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly  with  the  ends  of 
the  fingers,  care  being  taken  not  to  scratch  with  the 
nails,  or  a  stiff  brush  like  a  nail  brush  may  be  used. 
The  soap  should  be  washed  out  completely  with 
warm  water,  and  the  head  rinsed  with  cold  water,  to 
avoid  taking  cold.  The  hair  must  be  dried  thoroughly 
with  towels  and  finally  held  near  a  register,  or  pre- 
ferably in  the  sun. 

A  certain  amount  of  oil  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
hair  soft  and  in  good  condition.  The  oil  glands  in 
the  scalp  usually  secrete  a  sufficient  amount  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  sometimes  thought  that  frequent 
washing  of  the  scalp  will  remove  all  the  oil  and  make 
the  hair  too  dry.  This  is  not  usually  the  case,  be- 
cause the  rubbing  and  cleansing  stimulate  the  oil 
glands  to  greater  activity.  The  application  of  oil 
or  vaseline  is  advisable  only  when  the  hair  is  very 
dry. 

Aside  from  cleanliness,  massage  is  about  the  only  Massage 
effective  method  of  stimulating  the  growth  of  the 
hair.  For  the  best  results,  massage  should  be  ap- 
plied for  about  five  minutes  every  day.  A  long  ap- 
plication at  infrequent  intervals  has  very  little  effect. 
The  ends  of  the  fingers  of  both  hands  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  scalp  as  closely  as  possible  and  rubbed 
gently  backward  and  forward,  alternating  with  a  cir- 
cular movement,  care  being  taken  not  to  pull  too 


of  the  Scalp 


144 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Hair 
Tonics 


Cutting 

»nd 

Singeing 


Gray  Hair 


hard  on  the  hair.  At  times  the  scalp  itself  should  be 
moved  over  the  bones  beneath. 

Electricity  has  been  recommended  as  a  stimulant 
to  the  scalp.  If  used  judiciously  it  may  increase 
the  circulation  to  some  extent,  but  the  results  ob- 
tained are  no  better  than  massage,  and  hardly  war- 
rant the  inconvenience  and  expense.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  vacuum  caps. 

Innumerable  hair  tonics  are  advertised  in  super- 
lative terms,  but  the  only  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
them  is  the  little  massage  involved  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  so-called  tonic.  No  drug  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  skin  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  much 
effect. 

Cutting  and  singeing  have  been  recommended  to 
increase  the  growth  of  the  hair,  but  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  this  has  the  slightest  effect.  Split  ends' 
of  long  hair  should,  however,  be  trimmed  off. 

Curling  the  hair  may  injure  its  quality  and  appear- 
ance by  pulling  too  hard  on  the  roots,  or  in  using  the 
curling  iron  too  hot.  If  the  hair  is  not  pulled  or 
burnt,  curling  does  not  seem  to  injure  it. 

Superfluous  hair  on  the  face  can  only  be  removed 
permanently  by  means  of  electricity.  If  done  prop- 
erly, this  method  is  painless,  the  root  is  destroyed, 
and  the  hair  never  grows  again. 

The  time  when  the  hair  grows  gray  depends  largely 
on  inherited  tendency,  but  this  change  is  hastened 
by  mental  strain,  worry,  overwork  and  unhygienic 


CARE  OF  THE  COMPLEXION 


H5 


living.  Occasionally  some  great  sorrow  or  nervous 
shock  will  cause  the  hair  to  turn  gray  in  a  short 
time.  In  rare  cases  its  color  may  return  with  im- 
provement of  the  general  health.  There  is  no  drug 
or  remedy  applied  externally  or  taken  internally 
which  has  the  slightest  effect  in  preventing  the  hair 
from  turning  gray. 


CARE    OF    THE    COMPLEXION 

A  clear,  healthy  complexion  is  an  indication  of 
good  digestion,  good  circulation  and  good  elimina- 
tion, and  is  to  be  obtained  and  kept  only  through 
attention  to  the  general  health.  The  skin  of  the 
face  is  both  delicate  and  much  exposed,  so  its  care 
calls  for  special  attention.  Here  as  elsewhere  clean- 
liness is  essential  to  the  health  of  the  skin.  As  to 
how  often  to  use  soap  and  water  depends  upon  con- 
ditions. In  a  soft  coal  city  and  in  dusty  places  soap 
must  be  used.  There  i-s  some  danger  of  removing  too 
much  of  the  oil  of  the  skin  if  the  face  is  washed  to© 
frequently  with  soap  and  warm  water.  Soap  may 
be  used  on  an  oily  skin  with  advantage  more  often 
than  on  one  which  has  a  tendency  to  be  dry. 

It  is  probable  that  moderately  cold  water  is  best 
for  general  use.  The  cold  stimulates  the  muscles 
of  the  face  and  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin,  and 
keeps  them  in  good  tone.  Only  clean,  soft  water 
should  be  used,  and  the  wash  cloth  must  be  abso- 
lutely sweet  and  clean.     Whenever  soap  is  applied 


Complexion 

and 

Health 


■Washing 
the  Face 


146 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Steaming 
the  Face 


Massage 
of  the  Face 


it  should  be  thoroughly  rinsed  off  with  cold  water. 
If  the  skin  is  apt  to  be  dry,  an  application  of  an  oil 
substance,  such  as  cold  cream,  will  prove  helpful. 

The  best  time  for  thorough  cleansing  with  soap 
and  warm  water  is  probably  at  night  before  going 
to  bed.  Then  the  skin  will  not  be  exposed  to  cold, 
and  by  morning  the  protecting  oil  secretion  will  have 
been  restored.  Any  good  toilet  soap  may  be  used; 
medicated  soaps  are  of  little  value.  The  price  is  a 
fairly  good  indication  of  the  care  with  which  the  soap 
has  been  made.  Transparent  soaps  usually  contain 
glycerine. 

For  a  thorough  cleansing,  a  thick  cloth  like  a 
Turkish  towel  may  be  wet  in  hot  water  and  laid  over 
the  face.  This,  in  addition  to  softening  the  tissues, 
induces  perspiration,  which  tends  to  clear  out  the 
sweat  glands.  This  may  be  followed  by  an  appli- 
cation of  cold  cream,  well  rubbed  in.  On  wiping 
off  the  cold  cream  with  a  soft  cloth  the  amount  of  dirt 
removed  will  often  be  surprising.  This  treatment 
should  be  followed  by  an  application  of  cold  water 
to  contract  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin. 

In  addition  to  the  stimulating  effect  on  the  mus- 
cles of  the  face  of  cold  water,  massage  with  cold  cream 
is  very  helpful  in  improving  the  circulation.  The 
tips  of  the  fingers  should  be  used  with  a  rotary,  up- 
ward and  outward  movement,  the  lines  and  wrinkles 
being  always  rubbed  across.  The  touch  should 
be  firm,  but  gentle.     To  have  much  of  any  effect, 


CARE  OF  THE  COMPLEXION 


M7 


massage  must  be  practiced  for  a  few  minutes  every 
day. 

Cold  cream  is  a  mixture  of  white  wax  or  sper- 
maceti and  some  oil,  as  almond  oil  or  castor  oil,  to 
which  some  fragrant  substance  is  usually  added. 
Lotions  and  creams  usually  contain  glycerine  and  a 
great  variety  of  substances,  some  of  which  are  harm- 
ful. 

Face  powders  are  made  of  talc,  starch,  bismuth, 
zinc  oxide,  chalk  and  magnesia,  and  as  a  rule  are 
harmless  if  applied  in  moderate  quantity  for  a  short 
time  and  thoroughly  washed  off.  Powder  is  white 
dirt  instead  of  black  dirt;  it  has  the  same  effect  as 
the  application  of  so  much  graphite  —  the  principal 
ingredient  of  stove  blacking  —  which  has  about  the 
same  physical  properties  as  talc. 

Pimples  are  most  often  caused  by  some  micro- 
organisms, usually  bacteria,  finding  access  to  the 
skin  in  dirt  through  some  small  break  or  through 
some  gland.  The  pus  which  they  contain  is  made 
up,  among  other  things,  of  the  dead  bodies  of  white 
corpuscles  which  have  perished  in  their  endeavor  to 
rid  the  skin  of  the  intruders.  A  boil  is  an  enlarged 
pimple.  Their  discharges  are  somewhat  infectious. 
In  general,  pimples  and  boils  do  not  represent  the 
efforts  of  the  blood  to  free  itself  from  the  impurities, 
but  if  the  blood  is  in  poor  condition,  by  reason  of 
faulty  elimination  or  indigestion,  its  protecting  power 
is  lessened  and  skin  troubles  are  more  apt  to  manifest 


Cold  Cream 


Face 
Powders 


Pimples 
and  the 
Blood 


148  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

themselves.  Skin  diseases  are  many  and  complex, 
and  they  should  be  treated  by  specialists. 

Blackheads  are  the  hardened  secretions  of  seba- 
ceous glands.  They  may  be  softened  by  the  applica- 
tion of  cloths  wet  in  hot  water  and  removed  by  press- 
ing the  skin  gently  between  the  balls  of  the  thumbs. 
care  of  Some  care  is  required  to  keep  the  hands  in  good 
condition,  especially  if  much  housework  is  done. 
Stains  and  dirt  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible, 
so  that  they  may  not  become  deeply  imbedded  and 
require  rough  treatment  for  their  removal.  Crude 
soaps  contain  free  alkali,  and  when  used  in  hot  water 
remove  all  the  protecting  oil,  making  the  skin  hard, 
dry,  and  apt  to  crack  open  or  chap.  Only  a  good 
grade  of  white  soap  should  be  used  in  dish-washing 
and  the  like,  if  the  appearance  of  the  hands  is  to  be 
considered.  The  hands  must  be  kept  out  of  hot  water 
and  soap  and  soda  when  possible,  and  should  be  dried 
thoroughly  at  once  after  being  wet.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  use  strong  soaps  and  alkali,  rubbing 
vaseline  or  oil  into  the  hands  previously  will  help. 
Thin  rubber  gloves  may  be  used,  but  they  are  very 
uncomfortable  and  clumsy. 

The  nails  should  be  kept  clean  not  only  for  appear- 
ance sake,  but  because  the  dirt  may  harbor  dangerous 
infection.  The  nail  brush,  orange-wood  stick  and 
nail  file  are  better  to  use  than  sharp  instruments.  If 
the  nails  are  brittle  and  so-called  hang-nails  form, 
nightly  treatment  with  cold  cream  for  a  few  weeks 
should  bring  about  improvement. 


COLDS  .  149 

CARE    OF   THE   MUCOUS   MEMBRANE —COLDS 

Inflammation  of  the  lining  of  the  upper  portion      cause 

of  Colds 

of  the  respiratory  tract,  given  loosely  the  general 
name  of  a  cold  is,  perhaps,  the  most  common  ailment 
with  which  people,  healthy  otherwise,  have  to  deal. 
It  is  well  established  that  the  real  cause  of  colds  is 
bacterial  activity.  Explorers,  while  in  the  arctic 
regions,  where  there  is  no  bacterial  life,  are  not  afflicted 
with  colds,  although  they  are  exposed  to  greatest 
extremes  of  temperature.  On  their  return  to  civiliza- 
tion, 'an  epidemic  of  colds  usually  comes  on.  A 
mother  with  a  family  of  small  children  does  not  need 
to  be  told  that  colds  are  infectious,  for  if  one  child 
catches  cold  the  rest  usually  have  it,  although  some 
members  of  the  family,  by  reason  of  better  resistance, 
may  escape. 

The  means  by  which  a  cold  is  usually  brought  on  Bringing  on 
is  through  some  disturbance  of  the  circulation, 
most  frequently  by  chilling  of  the  surface  of  the  body. 
Chilling  continued  for  some  time  throws  a  greater 
volume  of  blood  to  the  internal  organs,  and  the  vessels 
of  the  mucous  membrane  become  overcharged.  This 
condition  in  some  way  enables  the  bacteria  to  gain 
a  foothold  and  multiply.  This,  in  turn,  leads  to  a 
further  accumulation  of  blood,  especially  of  the  white 
corpuscles,  to  repel  the  invaders.  The  continued 
excess  of  blood  results  in  the  inflammation.  In  this 
condition  some  of  the  capillaries  may  become  stopped 
up   from  white   corpuscles   adhering   to   the   minute 


a  Cold 


ijo 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Prevention 
of  Colds 


Hardening 
the  System 


veins,  and  this  makes  a  congestion.  As  the  bacteria 
are  driven  out,  the  inflammation  subsides  and  the 
blood  vessels  are  gradually  cleared. 

The  prevention  of  colds,  then,  involves  keeping 
the  mucous  membrane  as  clear  as  possible  from  foreign 
matters,  in  accustoming  the  system  to  change  in  ex- 
ternal temperature,  and  in  reasonable  care  that  the 
surface  of  the  body  does  not  become  unduly  chilled. 
The  first  involves  the  care  of  the  nasal  passages  and 
the  throat.  The  most  convenient  and  effective 
means  of  doing  this  is  the  oil  atomizer.  A  light 
mineral  oil  called  alboline  is  generally  used.  This 
may  be  used  plain  or  some  medication  may  be  added, 
such  as  eucalyptus,  menthol,  with  a  very  little  car- 
bolic acid.  A  physician  will  give  the  proper  prescrip- 
tion which  should  be  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the 
individual.  This  oil  spray  used  night  and  morning, 
together  with  gargling  the  throat  with  an  antiseptic 
solution,  will  help  to  keep  the  mucous  membrane  in 
good  condition  and  to  remove  the  source  of  infection. 

More  important,  perhaps,  is  the  training  of  the 
heat-regulating  mechanism  to  become  less  sensitive 
to  change  in  external  temperature  —  in  hardening 
the  system.  Cold  baths  are  most  effective  here. 
The  clothing  should  not  be  too  warm  and  the  rooms 
not  kept  at  too  high  a  temperature,  for  this  keeps 
the  skin  in  continual  tropical  surroundings,  so  that 
any  slight  change  of  external  temperature  has  marked 
effect.     Reasonable  care  should  be  exercised  towards 


COLDS 


151 


chilling  the  body.  The  greatest  danger  conies  in 
sitting  still  in  a  room  below  650  or  remaining  inactive 
for  a  considerable  time  in  a  strong  draught  or  wind. 
While  one  is  taking  active  exercise,  there  is  little 
danger  of  taking  cold.  Wet  clothing  conducts  the 
heat  away  from  the  body  much  more  rapidly  than 
when  it  is  dry,  so  that  it  is  dangerous  to  remain  quiet  if 
the  clothing  is  damp.  This  is  especially  true  in 
regard  to  the  shoes  and  stockings. 

The  body  is  much  more  susceptible  to  colds  at 
one  time  than  at  another.  Naturally,  susceptibility 
is  greater  when  the  other  functions  of  the  body  are 
not  in  good  condition.  Indigestion  may  make  one 
especially  liable  to  take  cold,  and  we  are  always  more 
susceptible  when  we  are  tired.  If  the  bedding  is  too 
warm,  the  body  may  get  into  a  perspiration,  and  if 
it  is  then  thrown  off  unconsciously,  a  chill  is  liable 
to  follow  before  one  is  awakened. 

"No  cold  is  trivial."  Although  a  slight  cold  may 
not  occasion  serious  inconvenience,  it  should  be  cared 
for.  Even  a  slight  disturbance  of  the  system  by  a 
cold,  with  the  attending  inflammation,  makes  the 
body  less  resistant  to  communicable  diseases,  and  a 
slight  cold  may  become  a  serious  matter  if  added  to. 
Frequent  colds  tend  to  produce  chronic  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  or  catarrh  which  is  a  condi- 
tion difficult  to  cure. 

Much  may  be  done  when  a  cold  is  felt  coming  on  to 
lessen  its  effect.     Any  means  which  will  draw  the 


Catching 
Cold 


Susceptibility 
to  Colds 


Care  of 
Colds 


152  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

blood  away  from  the  congested  area  is  helpful.  Hot 
baths,  or  mustard  foot  baths  are  recognized  as  a 
means  of  bringing  about  the  desired  results;  the 
taking  of  hot  drinks,  as  hot  lemonade,  throws  the 
blood  to  the  skin  and  away  from  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. 

After  the  cold  has  once  gained  foothold  in  the  body, 
not  very  much  can  be  done  except  to  protect  the 
body  from  further  chilling.  Cold  baths,  if  taken, 
should  be  discontinued ;  in  going  out  of  doors  in  cold 
weather  the  clothing  should  be  warm  and  come  up 
well  around  the  neck  and  throat.  Very  active  exer- 
cise which  produces  rapid  circulation  is  not  favorable 
at  the  height  of  a  cold,  but  may  help  to  clean  out  the 
stopped-up  blood  vessels  at  the  end  of  a  cold.  The 
Drugs  taking  of  drugs,  unless  the  whole  system  is  involved, 
is  worse  than  useless.  Many  of  the  so-called  cold 
cures  throw  out  the  digestive  system,  which  needs 
to  be  kept  in  good  condition  at  this  time.  Local 
applications,  however,  may  help  somewhat.  Medi- 
cated oil  spray  will  give  some  relief  and  "adrenolin" 
ointment  is  recommended  for  a  cold  in  the  head. 
This  contains  a  very  small  amount  of  the  extract  of 
the  adrenal  gland  of  some  animal,  and  has  the  prop- 
erty of  constricting  the  capillaries  locally.  If  there 
is  a  hard  cough,  which  tends  to  irritate  the  inflamed 
area  simple  cough  drops  or  mixtures,  which  will  pre- 
vent the  coughing,  are  useful. 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 

Clothing  is  worn  to  help  the  body  maintain  an 
even  temperature,  also  for  personal  adornment  and 
modesty.  Heat  is  transmitted  from  the  skin  by 
conduction  and  convection,  and  leaves  the  clothing 
in  both  these  ways,  and  by  radiation. 

There  is  only  a  very  slight  difference  in  the  con- 
ducting power  of  the  substances  of  which  textile 
fibers  themselves  are  made.  The  chief  difference  in 
the  heat-conducting  power  of  fabrics  comes  from  the 
structural  nature  of  the  fiber  and  the  weave.  As  dry 
air  has  less  than  i-ioo  of  the  conductivity  of  the  fiber 
substance,  clothing  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  in 
proportion  as  it  contains  air  between  the  meshes 
and  fibers.  A  number  of  layers  of  cloth  give  more 
warmth  than  one  of  the  same  weight. 

The  fibers  of  wool  are  very  much  curled  and  twisted, 
and  have  considerable  elasticity  or  spring,  so  that 
they  are  not  easily  spun  into  compact  thread  or 
matted.  Cotton  fiber  is  flat  and  twisted,  without 
much  elasticity;  linen  and  silk  are  nearly  straight 
and  cylindrical,  the  fiber  of  silk  being  very  fine  and 
that  of  linen  much  coarser  than  any  of  the  other  tex- 
tile fibers.  Wool  fabrics,  because  of  the  character 
of  the  fiber  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  woven,  enclose 
the  greatest  amount  of  air  between  the  fibers,  and  so 
make  the  warmest  clothing.  Cotton  may  be  so 
woven  as  to  be  almost  equal  to  wool  in  this  respect, 

153 


Conductivity 
of  Cloth 


Character 
of  the 
Textile 
Fibers 


i54 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Relation  of 

Clothing  to 

Perspiration 


Warm 
Weather 
Clothing 


but  it  mats  much  more  readily.  If  meshes  are  too 
large,  the  heat  is  carried  away  rapidly  by  convection 
—  especially  by  moving  air. 

Although  clothing  should  prevent  undue  loss  of 
heat,  it  should  not  prevent  the  escape  of  perspiration. 
It  is  only  by  evaporating  that  the  perspiration 
carries  away  heat.  If  the  vapor  cannot  escape,  the 
skin  is  apt  to  become  too  warm,  more  perspiration 
is  given  off,  and  the  underclothing  becomes  saturated ; 
water  replaces  the  air  and  the  underclothing  then 
becomes  a  very  good  conductor  of  heat.  If  there 
is  any  movement  of  the  air,  the  heat  is  taken  away 
rapidly,  both  by  convection  and  increased  evapora- 
tion, so  the  body  may  become  chilled.  A  leather 
jacket  or  newspaper  worn  under  the  coat  may  be 
desirable  out  of  doors  to  keep  cold  winds  from  pene- 
trating the  clothing,  but  any  covering  which  prevents 
the  evaporation  of  the  perspiration  as  fast  as  it  is 
formed,  is  very  undesirable.  Rubber  waterproof 
garments  are  for  this  reason  very  uncomfortable 
during  warm  weather.  Fabric  called  "cravenette," 
which  is  treated  so. as  to  be  waterproof,  yet  still  retain 
its  porous  character,  is  more  desirable. 

Clothing  for  the  hot  days  in  summer  should  impede 
the  escape  of  superfluous  heat  and  the  perspiration 
as  little  as  possible.  For  underclothing  the  open 
mesh  or  net  knit  goods  seems  most  suitable.  While 
this  permits  the  free  circulation  of  air,  and  so  ready 
cooling,  it  makes  an  extra  layer  of  air  between  the 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 


155 


skin  and  outer  clothing  when  additional  wraps  are 
added,  and  so  gives  considerable  warmth. 

The  amount  of  clothing  to  be  worn  in  winter  de- 
pends upon  conditions.  People  living  in  a  city  in 
houses  more  apt  to  be  overheated  than  underheated, 
and  riding  in  heated  street  cars,  require  clothing  but 
little  heavier  in  winter  than  in  spring  or  fall.  In- 
creased warmth  when  going  out  of  doors  is  better 
obtained  by  putting  on  extra  warm  outside  wraps, 
which  are  removed  when  in  the  house.  For  robust 
people,  only  medium  weight  clothing,  especially 
underclothing,  ought  to  b^  worn,  for  when  the 
temperature  of  the  rooms  is  kept  at  68  degrees  F.,  with 
heavy  underclothing  perspiration  becomes  active, 
and  the  skin  is  made  very  sensitive  to  the  changes 
in  temperature  and  the  liability  of  taking  cold  in- 
creased. Old  people  leading  inactive  lives  and  those 
who  are  not  strong  may  require  thicker  underclothing. 

Those  who  live  in  the  country  where  houses  may 
not  be  well  or  uniformly  heated,  or  people  who  are 
much  out  of  doors  and  inactive,  as  when  riding  in 
carriages,  may  well  protect  themselves  by  thicker 
underclothing,  as  well  as  with  warm  outside  garments. 

Color  has  some  effect  on  the  radiation  and  reflection 
of  heat  by  clothing.  White  reflects  heat,  as  it  does 
light,  much  more  completely  than  black  or  dark 
colors  which  absorb  it,  so  we  wear  white  in  the  hot 
sunshine  of  the  summer.  Dark  colors  which  absorb 
heat  radiate  it  better  than  white  or  light  colors.     For 


Winter 
Clothing 


Effect 

of  Color  of 

Clothing 


1 56 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Uniform 
Warmth 


Freedom 

from 

Restriction 


The 
Corset 


this  reason,  white  is  warmer  in  winter,  except  in  the 
sunshine,  as  well  as  cooler  in  summer.  It  is  stated 
that  a  white  rabbit  loses  only  three-fourths  as  much 
heat  as  one  whose  coat  is  gray  or  black.  White  or 
light  colored  underclothing  and  bedding,  then,  is 
somewhat  warmer  than  that  of  dark  color. 

Clothing  should  be  of  uniform  thickness  all  over 
the  body,  as  there  seems  to  be  no  logical  reason  why 
one  part  of  the  body  needs  greater  protection  than 
another  in  health  —  although  it  may  be  desirable  to 
protect  certain  parts  in  special  cases.  Clothing  should 
allow  unrestricted  movement  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 
Constriction  at  any  place  disturbs  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  and  interferes  with  proper  nutrition.  Cir- 
cular garters  for  holding  up  the  stockings  have  no 
excuse  for  being.  Nothing  will  so  quickly  ruin  the 
graceful  curves  of  the  neck  as  a  tight  collar. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  write  of  the  hygiene  of 
clothing  without  adding  a  word  to  the  already 
sufficiently  great  protest  against  the  corset.  //  the 
corset  is  not  worn  until  full  growth  is  attained,  and 
if  it  is  the  proper  shape  and  not  too  stiff,  and  if  it  is 
not  worn  too  tight  (but  no  woman  will  admit  that 
she  wears  her  corset  tight),  then  they  do  little  or  no 
harm.  It  is  hardly  less  than  criminal  to  put  a  young 
growing  girl  into  a  tight  waist  or  corset.  The  abdom- 
inal organs  need  the  support  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
to  keep  them  in  a  proper  position  and  the  muscles 
can  only  be  developed  by  use.     Natural  breathing 


HYGIENE  OF  CLOTHING 


157 


is  prevented,  the  natural  figure  is  distorted  by  the 
constriction,  grace  of  movement  is  interfered  with  be- 
cause of  the  cramping  and  under-development  of  the 
muscles  of  the  waist. 

Boys  might  be  put  into  corsets  and  men  wear 
them  with  comparatively  little  harm.  The  corset 
and  the  high  heeled  shoe  are,  according  to  all  physi- 
cians, responsible  for  the  greater  part  of  the  ills 
peculiar  to  women.  Undoubtedly  to  the  corset 
may  be  attributed  more  suffering  in  America  yearly 
than  was  ever  caused  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 

A  waist  too  small  is  as  much  of  a  deformity  as  too 
small  a  neck.  Compare  a  fashion  plate  to  a  Greek 
statue!  In  time  education  may  lead  to  reform,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  hope  at  present  that  the  corset 
will  be  banished,  at  least  for  dress-up  occasions. 
However,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  a 
woman's  clothing,  while  working  about  the  house, 
should  not  be  so  constructed  as  to  make  a  corset 
unnecessary.  As  made  at  present,  skirts  which 
fasten  with  a  draw-string  or  narrow  band  at  the  waist 
are  uncomfortable  without  a  corset,  but  they  may 
be  made  with  a  wide  fitted  band  so  as  to  be  supported 
by  the  hips  and  waist,  or  made  on  a  waist  and  sup- 
ported by  the  shoulders.  Union  suits  and  combina- 
tion garments  are  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 
Equestrain  tights  are  warmer  and  not  so  heavy  as 
thick  underskirts. 


Deformed 
■Waists 


Working 
Dresses 


i58 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Foot 
Troubles 


Preserving 

the  Arch  of 

the  Instep 


SHOES 

Because  the  feet  have  such  heavy  duty  to  perform 
and  are  so  important  in  connection  with  physical 
exercise,  shoes  deserve  considerable  attention  from 
the  hygienic  standpoint.  American  shoes  are  now 
constructed  more  in  accordance  with  the  natural 
shape  of  the  foot  than  formerly,  but  it  is  rather  rare 
that  the  adult  foot  is  not  mis-shapen  by  wearing  im- 
proper shoes,  and  corns,  bunions,  ingrowing  nails 
are  still  very  common. 

The  foot  is  made  up  of  twenty-six  small  bones, 
which  are  held  in  place  by  ligaments,  cords  and 
muscles.  To  preserve  the  arch  of  the  instep,  all  of 
these  must  be  strong  and  well  developed.  The  im- 
portant cords  running  under  the  instep  to  the  toes 
form  the  bow-string  action  necessary  to  maintain 
the  truss  which  the  arch  of  the  instep  really  is.  They 
may  be  easily  felt  by  placing  a  hand  under  thi  instep. 
To  make  these  tendons  strong,  the  toes  must  have 
full  play,  and  this  they  cannot  have  in  the  typical 
pointed  shoe.  In  order  to  act  as  a  perfect  lever,  the 
great  toe  should  be  nearly  straight  in  the  line  of  the 
foot  and  hence  the  inside  line  of  the  shoes  should  be 
nearly  straight.  The  toes  should  be  sufficiently 
wide;  the  soles  should  be  flexible,  so  that  the  toes 
may  be  able  to  push  in  walking.  A  large  stiff  box 
prevents  this.  Now-a-days  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
ready-made  shoes  that  fulfill  these  requirements 
which  are  still  not  clumsy  in  appearance.     The  shoe 


SHOES 


159 


should  fit  snugly  around  the  instep  and  heel,  but  allow 
sufficient  room  at  the  ball  of  the  foot  and  toes. 

People  who  have  worn  shoes  that  have  deformed 
the  feet  and  have  prevented  the  development  of 
strong  cords  and  tendons,  are  apt  to  have  the  arch 
give  way  some  time  during  middle  life.  The  bones 
of  the  instep  sag,  giving  the  condition  called  "flat 
foot."  This,  in  addition  to  being  very  painful, 
prevents  enjoyment  of  the  very  good  and  most 
available  form  of  physical  exercise  —  walking. 

Those  afflicted  with  flat  foot  find  some  relief  in 
using  a  metal  innersole  made  for  the  condition,  or  in 
especially  constructed  shoes,  which  support  the  instep. 

Corns  are  a  malignant  growth  of  a  papilla  caused 
by  irritation  of  an  ill-fitting  shoe,  usually  by  shoes 
that  are  too  small  —  sometimes  by  too  large  a  shoe. 
They  may  be  cured  by  the  attention  of  a  chiropodist, 
the  wearing  of  shoes  which  prevent  the  irritation, 
and  thorough  cleanliness.  A  bunion  is  a  much  more 
serious  affair,  being  a  disease  of  the  joint  of  the  great 
toe,  and  caused  from  a  turning  out  of  the  toe  by 
pointed  shoes,  and  by  pressure.  Since  the  improve- 
ment of  the  art  of  shoe-making,  they  are  much  less 
common  than  formerly. 

While  leather  is  somewhat  porous,  it  is  not  suffi- 
ciently so  in  many  cases  to  permit  the  perspiration 
to  escape  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  This  leads  to  an 
accumulation  of  perspiration,  the  stockings  be- 
come damp  and  then  the  feet  grow  cold  easily.     If 


Flat  Foot 


Corns  and 
Bunions 


Perspiring 
Feet 


160  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

the  sweat  glands  of  the  feet  are  especially  active, 
shoes  of  thin  leather  should  be  worn  and  thin  stockings. 
If  the  feet  are  especially  tender,  a  nightly  bathing  in 
warm  water  and  then  in  cold,  with  the  application  of 
a  little  oil,  will  prove  beneficial. 
Low  shoes  Low  shoes,  because  they  give  good  ventilation,  are 

a  hygienic  form  of  footwear,  especially  for  the  summer 
months.  If  gaiters  are  put  on  when  out  of  doors 
they  may  be  worn  the  year  round.  Tan  shoes  reflect 
heat,  and  so  are  cooler  for  summer  wear.  Patent 
leather  shoes  are  practically  non-porous  because  of 
the  coating  of  varnish,  and  are  not  suitable  for  con- 
stant wear. 
Rubbers  Rubbers  seem  to  be  a  necessary  evil,  and  undoubt- 
edly prevent  many  colds.  The  sandal  variety  which 
protects  the  soles  sufficiently  do  not  cause  the  feet 
to  perspire  so  much  as  those  that  cover  the  entire 
foot.  A  liberal  application  of  oil  to  the  soles  of  shoes 
makes  them  much  more  water-proof.  It  is  said  that 
the  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  such  as  salad  oil  and 
lard  oil,  are  better  for  the  leather  than  mineral  oils. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE 

The  hygiene  of  physical  exercise  has  been  left  until 
now  because  it  is  so  inclusive.  We  all  know  of  people 
who  take  little  muscular  exercise,  yet  seem  to  main- 
tain a  fair  degree  of  health.  Is  muscular  exercise  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  health,  and  if  so,  why  ?  We  must 
remember  that  those  who  seem  to  get  along  comfor- 
tably with  hardly  any  physical  activity,  are  the 
exceptions.  Many,  very  many  more  leading  inac- 
tive lives  are  continually  in  a  half -well  condition. 
The  mere  act  of  sitting,  standing  and  walking  involves 
some  muscular  activity,  and  undoubtedly  is  the 
physical  salvation  of  many  who  lead  sedentary  lives. 

As  to  why  muscular  activity  is  so  essential  to  Necessity  of 
health,  it  is  only  necessary  to  point  out  that  about  Activity 
half  the  weight  of  the  adult  body  is  made  up  of  the 
skeletal  muscles  (those  attached  to  bones).  Fur- 
ther, the  fat  of  the  body  is  so  much  lifeless  food 
material,  the  bones,  except  the  outer  layer,  are  prac- 
tically lifeless,  the  connecting  tissues,  cords  and  ten- 
dons have  comparatively  few  living  cells,  and  the  blood, 
aside  from  the  corpuscles,  consists  of  nutrients,  wastes 
and  water.  There  remain  the  glands,  nerve  tissue, 
and  muscles,  which  constitute  the  active,  living  cells 
of  the  body.  Of  these  the  muscles  comprise  over 
three-fourths  by  weight.  The  really  living  part  of 
the  body,  then,  is  made  up  largely  of  the  muscles. 
They  are  the  dominant  tissues;   for  them  the  organs 

161 


l62 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Developed 

Through 

Muscular 

Activity 


Reserve 
Power 


Effects  of 

Physical 

Culture 


of   digestion,   respiration,    circulation,  •  and   elimina- 
tion do  most  of  their  work. 

In  the  child,  muscular  activity  trains  and  develops 
the  nervous  system,  the  heat  regulating  mechan- 
ism, the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  digestive  organs,  and 
the  muscles  themselves.  The  development  of  the 
bones,  even,  is  largely  dependent  on  muscular  exer- 
cise. It  is  easy  to  see,  then,  why  nature  has  made 
the  life  of  the  young  one  of  constant  muscular 
activity. 

As  no  organ  except,  perhaps,  a  part  of  the  brain, 
can  be  properly  developed  without  muscular  activ- 
ity, so  the  full  strength  and  activity  of  no  organ  or 
function  can  be  maintained  except  through  muscular 
exercise. 

An  automobile  with  a  half-horse  power  engine  is 
able  to  run  along  without  trouble  so  long  as  the  road 
is  smooth  and  level.  Rough  going,  or  a  hill,  however, 
would  cause  something  to  break  or  bring  the  engine  to 
a  dead  stop.  Reserve  power  is  needed.  In  the 
same  way  we  all  need  reserve  power  to  weather  the 
storms  and  overcome  the  rough  places  in  life.  We 
need  to  be  able  to  "speed  up "  for  a  time,  if  necessary. 

The  good  effects  given  by  physical  activity  are 
(i)  the  training  of  the  heart  —  muscular  exercise  is 
the  only  natural  way  of  increasing  the  number  and 
power  of  the  heart-beats,  and  so  in  maintaining  a 
strong  heart.  (2)  Respiration  is  increased  and 
deepened  during  muscular  activity,    the  capacity  of 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE  163 

the  chest  increased  by  movement  of  the  ribs,  the 
lungs  ventilated,  and  all  of  the  remote  air  sacs 
distended.  (3)  The  circulation  is  made  more  rapid 
by  exercise  and  rhythmic  contraction  and  relaxing 
of  the  muscles,  combined  with  deep  breathing,  are 
powerful  aids  to  a  good  circulation,  preventing  stagna- 
tion in  the  blood  vessels,  and  especially  in  the 
lymph  vessels.  This  leads  to  better  elimination.  (4) 
The  heat  regulating  mechanism  is  trained,  for  muscu- 
lar exercise  sets  free  much  heat.  (5)  Moderate 
exercise  has  a  favorable  effect  on  digestion,  and  the 
movements  of  the  abdominal  muscles  help  peri- 
stalsis; exercise  gives  a  keen  appetite,  and  so  helps 
digestion.  (6)  General  exercise  gives  the  body  gen- 
eral fatigue  and  thus  makes  sleep  natural  and  profound. 

The  life  of  our  ancestors  involved  considerable  Human 
muscular  activity,  and  the  human  machine  is  adapted  Bum  for 
to  do  a  large  amount  of  muscular  work.  Conditions 
of  living  have  changed  faster  than  the  physical  body 
could  possibly  change.  We  have  essentially  the  same 
sort  of  a  body  as  that  of  our  prehistoric  ancestors. 
It  is  a  question  whether  the  race  will  ever  develop 
into  one  with  weak  muscles,  small  bones,  and  degener- 
ate organs.  Certainly  the  type  of  man  would  not  be 
so  high. 

Two  generations  or  so  ago  few  people  were  troubled 
because  of  lack  of  physical  activity.  Nearly  all 
received  a  sufficient  amount  in  the  course  of  their 
daily  living.     It  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  mus- 


Work 


164  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

cular  work  performed  by  the  people  of  the  United 
States  has  decreased  about  75  per  cent  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years.  This  great  change  is  due  to 
the  introduction  of  all  sorts  of  labor-saving  machines. 
A  generation  ago  wage  earners  did  a  great  deal  of 
laborious  muscular  work ;  now  they  accomplish  more 
by  sitting  down  and  tending  a  machine  which  does 
the  mechanical  part  and  simply  requires  close  watch- 
ing. A  corresponding  change,  although  to  a  less 
extent,  has  taken  place  in  housework.  Running 
water,  coal  and  gas  stoves,  sewerage  have  lessened 
greatly  the  amount  of  laborious  work  necessary. 
increase  There  are  certainly  many  advantages  in  this 
Activity  decreased  amount  of  muscular  work  needed  ■  at 
present,  but  there  are  also  disadvantages.  With  the 
decrease  in  manual  labor,  there  has  been  an  accom- 
panying great  increase  in  the  nervous  energy  re- 
quired in  the  life  of  to-day.  Investigations  have 
revealed  the  fact  that  city  families  on  an  average  do 
not  last  more  than  three  generations,  and  rarely  more 
than  two,  without  the  addition  of  country  stock. 
It  is  undeniably  true  that  average  conditions  of  life 
in  a  city  are  not  so  favorable  to  health  as  the  condi- 
tions which  exist  in  the  country.  This  comes  about 
through  less  muscular  activity,  less  out-door  life  and 
more  mental  work,  excitement  and  nervous  stimula- 
tion. There  is  no  principle  in  hygiene  better  estab- 
lished than  that  considerable  muscular  activity  is  nec- 
essary to  counteract  the  evil  effects  of  sedentary  life. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE 


165 


The  objection  is  often  made  that  "there  is  no  time," 
but  time  must  be  found.  The  necessary  physical 
activity  takes  no  more  time  than  that  lost  through 
illness.  The  diminished  efficiency  in  work  counts  for 
more  than  time  actually  spent  in  muscular  activity 
needed  for  health,  to  say  nothing  of  the  increased 
pleasure  of  living  and  joy  that  comes  with  abundant 
vitality.  The  amount  of  neglect  and  abuse  that  the 
human  machine  will  stand  is  surprising,  but  physical 
sins  have  their  punishment  soon  or  late. 

Physical  self-sacrifice  which  may  perhaps  lead  to 
invalidism  or  death  is  never  justifiable.  It  is  better 
for  the  children  to  receive  less  of  the  mother's  time 
and  still  have  a  mother ;  better  for  the  family  to  have 
less  money  than  no  provider. 

There  are  certain  essential  principles  governing  the 
value  of  various  forms  of  muscular  activity.  Exer- 
cise taken  for  its  hygienic  effect  should  involve  a 
maximum  amount  of  muscular  work  and  a  mininum 
of  nervous  energy.  This  is  accomplished  by  exer- 
cising the  large  group  muscles  of  the  legs  and  trunk 
rather  than  the  small  muscles  of  the  arm.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  muscular  work  is  done  in  playing 
the  piano,  but  the  amount  of  nervous  energy  expended 
is  so  great  that  the  activity  does  not  serve  the  purpose 
of  hygienic  exercise.  Brisk  walking,  swimming, 
bicycle  riding,  golf,  and  the  like,  call  for  a  consider- 
able amount  of  work  by  the  larger  muscles,  and  for  this 
reason  are  valuable  hygienic  exercises.     The  exercise 


Economy 
of  Time 


Principles  of 

Hyiegnic 

Exercises 


166  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

should  be  sufficiently  vigorous  to  increase  the  activity 
of  the  heart  and  lungs.  It  should  be  rhythmic  rather 
than  sustained,  because  such  exercises  are  more 
pleasurable  and  less  apt  to  cause  strain.  It  should 
be  enjoyable,  if  possible,  and  so  rest  the  mind. 

Undoubtedly  the  best  kind  of  physical  exercise  is 
that  involved  unconsciously  in  one's  daily  occupa- 
tion. A  long  walk  taken  to  one's  place  of  business  or 
to  do  marketing  is  better  than  the  same  amount  of 
walking  done  simply  for  the  exercise.  A  situation 
"only  a  two  minutes  walk"  from  the  markets,  station, 
or  street  car  is  not  always  desirable  for  one's  homes. 

A  mother  with  three  or  four  small  children,  doing 
most  of  the  housework,  gets  sufficient  physical 
activity,  perhaps  more  than  enough.  What  she  needs 
is  a  lessening  of  nervous  strain  through  social  relaxa- 
tion and  moderate  out-door  activity. 
Housework  If  the  clothing  be  loose,  the  shoulders  kept  back, 

the  chin  in,  housework  is  a  very  good  form  of  physi- 
cal exercise  (except  that  it  is  indoors) ,  but  if  the  work 
is  not  well  organized,  or  if  there  is  a  wrong  attitude 
of  mind  towards  the  work,  the  nervous  strain  and 
mental  disquietude  counteract  the  good  physical 
effects.  But  there  are  many  women  able  to  keep  two 
or  three  servants,  whose  physical  (and  mental)  health 
would  be  far  better  if  they  were  not  so  fortunate  ( ? ) 
and  found  it  necessary  to  do  more  of  the  housework. 

For  those  leading  a  sedentary  life,  then,  some  mus- 
cular activity  outside  the  daily  routine  is  necessary 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE 


167 


for  health.  No  argument  is  necessary  to  prove  that 
when  possible  exercise  should  be  taken  in  the  open  air. 
The  simplest,  most  universally  available  and  a  very 
desirable  out-of-door  exercise,  is  walking.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  brisk  walk  of  two  or  three  miles  a  day, 
or  its  equivalent,  is  needed  on  the  average  to  keep  a 
man  or  woman  in  good  physical  condition.  The  walk 
must  be  rapid  —  between  three  and  four  miles  an  hour. 
The  saunter  of  the  typical  "constitutional"  requires 
little  more  muscular  activity  than  standing.  Walk- 
ing on  level  city  pavements  produces  weariness  long 
before  an  adequate  amount  of  muscular  exercise  has 
been  done.  The  feeling  of  monotony  and  weariness 
does  not  come  so  soon  if  the  walk  is  taken  in  good 
company.  A  cross-country  walk  up  and  down  hill 
is  usually  delightful  and  most  beneficial  exercise. 

It  is  always  better  to  walk  with  some  object  in 
view.  Any  physical  exercise,  taken  simply  for  the 
exercise,  although  it  may  have  some  favorable  effect, 
cannot  begin  to  compare  with  that  through  which 
pleasure  is  obtained.  Out-of-door  fads  involving 
considerable  walking  contribute  greatly  to  physical 
well-being.  Among  such  are  botanizing,  the  study 
of  birds,  of  butterflies,  and  all  of  the  many  forms  of 
nature  study,  microscopy,  geology,  amateur  photo- 
graphy, and  the  like.  For  the  summer  vacation  there 
is  mountain  climbing.  There  is  no  way  equal  to 
walking  of  coming  close  to  nature  and  getting  at  her 
wonderful  secrets.     Often   exploration  of  one's  own 


■Walking 


Out-of-Door 
Recreation 


i68 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


city  or  town  will  yield  much  of  interest  in  history  and 
sociology.     We  are  apt  to  neglect  the  things  within 
walking  distance. 
Bicycling  Bicycling  has  some  advantages  over  walking,  as  it 

involves  a  greater  distribution  of  muscular  effort  and 
so  a  greater  total  amount  of  work  may  be  done  with- 
out fatigue.  It  gives  one  a  much  larger  radius  and  a 
wider  range  of  interests.  It  is  a  pity  that  bicycling 
has  now  lost  the  vogue  it  formerly  held,  but  it  is  just 
as  enjoyable  as  ever,  and  machines  are  much  less 
expensive.  Automobiling  and  carriage  riding  give 
very  little  exercise.  Taking  the  air  is  desirable,  but 
not  a  substitute  for  physical  activity.  The  rapid 
motion  and  fresh  air  may  whet  the  appetite,  and  so 
tempt  one  to  over-eat. 

Horseback  riding  is  an  excellent  form  of  exercise, 
although  not  suitable  for  delicate  women.  It  is  ex- 
pensive in  the  city,  but  not  so  in  the  country. 

Rowing  and  paddling  are  exceedingly  valuable. 
They  are  easily  learned,  pleasurable,  and  are  usually 
associated  with  beautiful  scenery  and  delightful  sur- 
roundings. The  movements  involved  in  handling 
the  oars  and  paddles  are  particularly  adapted  to  the 
exercise  and  strengthening  of  the  arms,  back,  chest 
and  waist. 
Swimming  Swimming  is  a  most  fascinating  and  exhilarating 

exercise,  especially  when  practiced  in  the  ocean.  It 
involves  the  activity  of  nearly  all  the  muscles  in  the 
body,  and  tends  to  give  a  symmetrical  figure  and 


Horseback 
Riding 


Rowing 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE  i6g 

erect  carriage.  Because  swimming  is  so  enjoyable 
there  is  danger  of  remaining  too  long  in  the  water, 
if  the  water  is  cold.  If  the  body  becomes  chilled  and 
the  lips  blue,  much  more  harm  than  good  comes  from 
sea  bathing.  Swimming  has  the  disadvantage  of 
being  difficult  to  learn  after  youth. 

Of  the  out-of-door  sports,  golf  seems  to  be  the  most  Golf 
generally  valuable.  It  is  not  difficult  for  adults  to 
acquire  some  proficiency,  it  is  suitable  for  all  ages ; 
nearly  all  get  the  "enthusiasm;"  it  can  be  played 
nearly  all  the  year  round.  In  addition  to  the  mus- 
cles involved  in  walking,  there  is  moderate  exercise 
for  the  arms,  shoulders,  back,  waist  and  abdominal 
muscles.  It  occupies  the  mind  completely,  and  most 
people  find  they  can  cover  a  distance  in  following 
the  ball  that  would  be  impossible  in  a  straight-away 
walk.     Much  or  little  exercise  can  be  taken,  as  desired. 

Lawn  tennis,  also,  has  many  advantages.  It  is  Tennis 
interesting,  adapts  itself  to  mild,  moderate,  or  vig- 
orous exercise,  and  the  movement  involved  in  lifting 
the  arms  overhead,  the  frequent  bendings  and  twist- 
ings  of  the  waist,  the  running  and  jumping,  make  it 
a  splendid  all-around  exercise.  The  disadvantages 
are  that  the  game  is  difficult  to  learn  after  youth, 
and  like  golf  it  is  not  available  for  every  one. 

Croquet,  archery,  and  the  like,  are  mild  forms  of 
exercise,  and  although  better  than  nothing,  do  not 
give  robust  people  sufficient  muscular  activity  for 
the  time  taken. 


170 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


■Winter 
Sports 


Gymnasium 
Games 


Dancing 


Gymnastics 


It  is  more  difficult  to  get  sufficient  out-of-door  ex- 
ercise in  winter.  Skating,  snowshoeing,  toboggan- 
ing are  excellent,  but  they  are  usually  possible  only 
at  irregular  intervals  and  cannot  be  depended  upon 
for  regular  exercise.  Walking  is  always  available, 
but  somewhat  less  interesting.  In  winter  we  must 
resort  to  indoor  games  which  afford  valuable  exer- 
cise, combined  with  recreation.  Bowling  is  easily 
learned,  and  combines  activity,  with  considerable 
enjoyment.  Even  though  only  one  hand  is  used, 
there  is  little  danger  of  one-sided  development  in 
bowling  two  or  three  times  a  week. 

Fencing  has  many  advantages  as  an  indoor  exer- 
cise. It  gives  grace  of  movement,  an  erect  carriage, 
agility  and  precision.  The  combative  element  makes 
fencing  fascinating,  and  develops  judgment,  coolness 
and  self-control.  Basket  ball  is  an  excellent  indoor 
game,  but  it  is  apt  to  become  somewhat  violent. 
Hand  ball  is  a  very  good  gymnasium  game. 

Were  it  not  for  poor  ventilation  and  late  hours, 
dancing  would  be  an  admirable  form  of  exercise,  but 
in  a-  close,  dusty  hall  it  is  of  doubtlul  value.     How 
ever,  it  is  possible  to  have  good  ventilation  and  to 
stop  at  a  reasonable  hour. 

In  addition  to  the  indoor  games  there  is  an  end- 
less variety  of  systematic  gymnastic  movements 
which,  if  practiced  regularly  and  judiciously  under 
a  trained  instructor,  bring  about  the  very  best  re- 
sults in  the  correction  of  faulty  carriage  and  in  de- 


FUNDAMENTAL  POSITION 


172  PERSONAL  HYGIENE. 

veloping  the  muscles,  as  well  as  in  the  maintaining 
of  good  physical  condition.  We  are  not  concerned 
here  with  the  large  subject  of  physical  education, 
but  are  more  interested  in  gymnastics  from  the  hy- 
gienic standpoint.  While  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained in  gymnasium  classes  under  a  trained  instructor, 
it  is  possible  to  receive  much  good  by  practicing 
free  movements,  without  apparatus,  at  home.  For 
this  purpose  a  few  selected  typical  movements  are 
described  and  illustrated  here  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  are  willing  to  give  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  every 
day  to  maintaining  and  improving  their  physical 
condition.* 
.    Home         There  are  two  series  of  exercises.     Those  in  the 

Exercise  . 

first  series  are  simple  and  not  very  vigorous;  those 
in  the  second  series — in  brackets — are  more  vigor- 
ous, and  should  not  be  tried  until  those  in  the  first 
series  have  been  practiced  for  several  weeks.  All 
the  exercises  in  the  two  series  may  be  taken  by  vig- 
orous women  after  a  few  weeks'  practice. 

The  figures  indicate  the  counts  that  correspond 
to  the  movements  in  each  exercise.  It  is  well  to 
count  while  doing  the  movements. 

Try  to  imitate  the  positions  in  the  illustrations 
as  accurately  as  possible.  Practice  each  exercise 
about  8  counts  at  first  and  increase  gradually  to  32 

*Exercises  designed  and  photographs  furnished  by  Pro- 
fessor G  L.  Meylan,  Director  "Gymnasium  Department, 
Columbia  University. 


EXERCISE  1. 

One.  —  liend  head  backward. 
Two. — Return  to  position. 


EXERCISE  2. 

One.—  Bend  arms.    Raise  heels. 
Two.—  Return  to  position. 


174  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

counts  in  five  or  six  weeks.  The  rhythm  should  be 
rather  slow  at  first,  and  increased  gradually  up  to 
moderate  rapidity.  The  total  amount  of  work  is 
increased  by  doing  the  exercises  rapidly. 

Avoid  doing  the  exercises  in  a  jerky  manner.     It 
is  well  to  stand  before  a  mirror  while  learning  them, 
to  make  sure  that  all  the  positions  are  taken  accur- 
ately. 
Dress  and  Have  the  windows  wide  open,  dress  loosely,  take 

three  or  four  deep  breaths  and  begin  the  exercises, 
being  careful  to  take  them  in  the  order  given.  The 
breathing  should  be  deep  and  regular  while  doing 
the  movements.  Follow  the  exercise  by  a  cool 
sponge  bath  and  a  vigorous  rub  with  a  coarse  towel. 

EXERCISE  i 

One — Bend  head  backward,  with  chin  in,  hands  on 
hips,  and  shoulders  low  (inhale  as  head  goes  back). 
Two — Return  to  position. 

EXERCISE  2 

One — Arm  bending  and  heel  raising. 
Two — Return  to  position. 
One — Raise  heels. 

Two — Lower  heels  and  raise  toes  (rest  hands  on  back 
of  chair  if  necessary  to  maintain  balance). 


EXERCISE  3. 
One.—  Raise  arms  sideways  and  bend  the  knees. 


176  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

EXERCISE  3 

One — Raise  arms  sideways  and  bend  knees. 

Two — Return  to  position. 

One — Raise  arms   sideways   (and   bend  knees  as  far 

down  as  possible). 
Two— Return  to  position. 

EXERCISE  4 

One — With  hands  on  hips  and  feet  apart,  bend  side- 
ways to  right. 

Two — Straighten  up. 

Three — Bend  sideways  to  left. 

Four — Straighten  up. 

(Same  as  preceding  exercise,  only  with  hands  back 

of  neck.) 

EXERCISE  5 

One — With  arms  bent  and  feet  apart,  bend  forward 

with  back  straight. 
Two — Stretch  arms  overhead. 
Three — Bend  the  arms. 
Fourth — Straighten  up. 

EXERCISE  6 

One — Lift  right  knee  high. 

Two — Replace  right  leg  on  floor  and  lift  left  knee 

immediately    (stationary    walking    in    moderately 

quick  rhythm) . 
One — (Same    as   previous   exercise,  only  with  knees 

straight,   supporting  the  hands  on  back  of  chair 

if  necessary.) 


EXERCISE  4. 
One.—  Bend  sideways,  hands  on  the  hips. 


EXERCISE  5. 
Two. —  Stretch  arms  over  head  after  bending 


EXERCISE  6. 
One.—  Lift  knee  high. 


i So  PERSOXAL  HYGIEXE 

EXERCISE  7 

One — Bend  arms. 

Two — Stretch  arms  overhead  as  high  as  possible. 

Three — Bend  the  arms. 

Four — Stretch  the  arms  horizontally  sideways. 

Five — Bend  the  arms. 

Six — Stretch  the  arms  down  to  sides. 

EXERCISE  8 

One — With  "hands   on  neck,  twist  to  right   (try  not 

to  move  below  the  waist). 
Tivo — Return  to  position. 
Three — Twist  to  left. 
Four — Return  to  position. 

EXERCISE  9 

(a).  One — AYith  arms  bent  and  feet  apart,  bend  down 
and  try  to  touch  the  floor  (knees  straight"). 

Two — Straighten  up. 

Three — Stretch  arms  overhead. 

Four — Bend  the  arms. 

(b).  One — From  fundamental  position,  bend  the 
arms. 

Two — Jump  to  position  feet  apart,  and  at  the  same 
time  bend  down  and  try  to  touch  the  floor. 

Three — Straighten  up,  with  arms  overhead. 

Four — Jump  to  position. 


EXERCISE  7. 
Two.—  Stretch  arms  over  head. 


EXERCISE  8. 

Owe.— Twist  to  the  right. 


1 82  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

EXERCISE  10 

(a)  Place  hands  on  a  chair. 

One — Reach  back  with  right  foot  as  far  as  possible. 
Two1 — Place  left  foot  beside  right  foot  and  maintain 

body  straight. 
Three — Return  right  foot. 
Four — Return  left  foot. 

(Same  as  preceding  exercise  only  move  both  feet 
back  at  the  same  time.) 

(b)  Lie  on  the  floor  with  hands  back  of  neck. 

One — Raise  right  leg  as  high  as  possible  with  knee 

straight. 
Two — Lower  right  leg  to  floor. 
Three — Raise  left  leg. 
Four — Lower  left  leg. 

EXERCISE  ii 

With  hands  on  hips  and  heels  raised,  jump  up  and 

down  with  feet  together. 
(Same  as  preceding  exercise,  only  jump  with  feet  apart 

and  together  alternately.) 

EXERCISE    12 

Run  in  place,  lifting  the  heels  high  up  behind. 
(Same  as  preceding  exercise,  only  lift  knees  high  in 
front  at  each  step.) 


EXERCISE  10. 
Two.—  Place  left  foot  beside  the  right,  keeping  the  body  straight. 


EXERCISE  14. 
One.—  Raise  arms  sideways,  palms  down. 


EXERCISE  14, 
One  continued.— Turn  hands  over,  bend  head  hack,  take  deep  breath. 


1 86  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

EXERCISE  13 

One — Raise  the  arms  forward — upward  as  high  as 

possible  while  taking  a  deep  breath. 
Two — Bring  arms  down   sideways   while    breathing, 

breathe  out. 

EXERCISE  14 

One — Raise  arms  sideways'  to  horizontal,  palms 
down,  turn  hands  over  with  backward  bending  of 
head  and  taking  a  deep  breath. 

Two — lower  the  arms,  return  head  to  position  and 
out. 


Exercise 
Not  All 


Monotony 


Although  the  practice  of  the  foregoing  or  other 
home  gymnastics  will  bring  about  a  great  improve- 
ment in  health,  attention  must,  of  course,  be  given 
to  correct  carriage  of  the  body,  standing  or  sitting, 
proper  method  of  breathing,  wholesome  food,  and 
so  on.  Fifteen  minutes  gymnastic  work  will  not  counter- 
act the  effect  of  the  infringement  of  all  other  rules  of 
hygiene  through  the  rest  of  the  twenty-four  hours. 

The  great  drawback  to  home  gymnastics  is  that 
the  work  grows  monotonous  after  a  week  or  two, 
and  some  strength  of  mind  is  required  to  keep  up 
the  daily  practice.  However,  the  exercises  may  be 
varied,  often  by  out-of-doors  exercise,  or  light  appar- 
atus may  be  used.  From  the  hygienic  standpoint 
it  does  not  matter  much  how  the  physical  activity  is 
obtained  so  long  as  it  is  obtained  daily.  Even  if  it 
does  become  monotonous  at  times,  the  results  justify 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE  187 

the  effort.  Care  of  the  body  in  general  is  not 
particularly  interesting,  but  habit  makes  it  a  matter 
of  course.  Practicing  scales  on  the  piano  is  irk- 
some, but  it  is  the  only  means  to  a  desired  end;  so 
physical  activity  is  the  only  means  of  acquiring  and 
maintaining  a  high  degree  of  personal  health. 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Part    III 


Read  Carefully.  A  number  of  personal  questions  are  asked 
in  connection  with  this  lesson,  not  for  the  information  of 
the  instructor,  but  to  bring  the  matter  home  to  you,  and 
to  enable  you  to  clarify  your  thoughts  by  writing  them 
out.     Answer  fully  and  leave  space  between  answers. 


i.  Give  a  brief  account  of  your  own  health  history 
with  the  probable  reason  for  any  periods  of 
lack  of  health. 

2.  (a)  Why  is  the  care  of  the  nervous  system  so 

important?  (b)  How  are  strong  nerves  de- 
veloped, and  how  maintained?  (c)  Why  is 
sleep  necessary  ?  How  much  do  you  find  that 
you  need  ? 

3.  Why  is  it  important  that  good  personal  habits 

and  habits  of  work  be  formed  early?  (b) 
What  is  laziness  ? 

4.  What  are  the  important  points  in  the  care  of  the 

teeth  ?  How  should  your  own  teeth  be  cared 
for? 

5.  (a)  What  determines  the  amount  of  food  re- 

quired ?  (b)  Which  do  you  consider  the  most 
important  (1)  the  chemical  composition  of 
food,  (2)  the  manner  of  eating,  or  (3)  the  way 
the  food  is  cooked  and  why  ?  (c)  What  are 
your  own  food  problems  ? 

188 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE  189 

6.  Why   is   it   desirable    to    drink   a    considerable 

amount  of  water?  About  what  quantity 
of  water  or  other  liquids  do  you  take  daily  ? 

7.  What  factors  determine  the  effects  of  baths? 

Do  you  find  a  daily  cool  bath  of  any  kind 
beneficial  ? 

8.  Give  the  principles  governing  (a)  health  of  the 

hair,  (b)  health  of  the  complexion. 

9.  What  are  "colds?"     How  are  they  brought  on, 

and  how  prevented  ?  How  should  a  cold  be 
cared  for  ? 

10.  What  can  you  say  of  the  hygiene  of  clothing? 

(b)  To  what  extent  does  the  question  of 
health  govern  the  selection  of  your  own  cloth- 
ing? 

11.  Why  is  the  care  of  the  feet  and  the  selection  of 

shoes  of  importance  ? 

12.  What  reasons  are  there  for  believing  that  a  cer- 

tain amount  of  physical  activity  is  necessary 
for  health?     Answer  fully. 

13.  Give  the  principles  governing  the  good  hygienic 

effects  of  exercise. 

14.  What  forms  of  physical  activity  are  available 

for  you  at  the  present  time  ? 

15.  In  the  care  of  your  own  health  what  tendency 

or  weakness  calls  for  special  attention  ? 
What  can  you  do  to  overcome  such  fault? 


i go  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

1 6.  Make  out  an  hourly  schedule  for  yourself,  giving 

hours  for  work,  recreation,  eating,  and  sleep, 
and  allowing  some  time  for  the  care  of 
health  —  a  schedule  which  you  could  easily 
follow,  say  for  350  days  in  the  year. 

17.  Give  your  opinion  of  the  duty  of  health. 

18.  What  is  your  feeling  in  regard  to  the  taking  of 

medicine  (meaning  drugs)  for  minor  ailments 
and  without  a  physician's  orders  ? 

19.  Which  would  you  say  was  greater,  the  influence 

of  health  of  mind  on  health  of  the  body,  or 
the  influence  of  the  health  of  body  on  health 
of  mind  ? 

20.  Draw  up  a  set  of  good  resolutions  relating  to 

your  personal  health.  (A  certain  place  is 
said  to  be  paved  with  good  intentions,  but 
"heaven  is  vaulted  with  them.") 

21.  Have  you  read  any  of  the  books  recommended 

or  others  in  connection  with  this  lesson  ? 
2  2 .     What  questions  have  you  ? 

Note. — After  completing  the  answers,  sign  your  full  name. 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH;  OR  HEALTH  A 
DUTY 

By  Thomas  D.  Wood,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Physical  Education,  Columbia  University 


.    UNITY  OF  THE  BODY,  MIND,  AND  SOUL 

The  attempt  to  classify  man  under  the  headings  of 
the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  is  misleading.  No 
clear  distinction  exists  or  can  be  made  between  these 
three  conditions  or  attributes.  The  complete  unity 
of  man  is  one  ot  the  most  striking  and  significant  facts 
in  nature.  The  interdependence  between  different 
organs,  functions,  and  faculties  is  so  close  and  vital 
that  what  affects  a  part  of  the  organism  affects  all  of 
it,  and  the  indirect  influences  frequently  are  so  subtle 
and  far-reaching  as  to  confuse  the  best  of  physicians, 
physiologists,  and  psychologists. 

The  nervous  system  is  as  genuinely  physical  as 
bones  and  muscle.  The  brain  is  a  physical  structure 
—  a  part  of  the  nervous  system  —  and  mind  is  a  func- 
tion of  the  brain ;  so  that  mental  activity  is  essentially 
as  physical  a  process  as  digestion,  muscular  action, 
or  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Mental  activity  is 
hidden  away  within  the  brain  in  the  skull,  but  the 
only  way  in  which  mental  action  can  be  expressed  to 
others  is  through  muscular  action  in  speech,  or  writing, 
or  the  expression  of  the  face,  or  the  rest  of  the 
body. 

191 


192  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Moral  qualities  have  to  be  expressed  in  a  similar 
way.  In  fact,  "moral"  refers  to  the  attitude  of  the 
person  in  relation  to  others  in  purpose  and  conduct. 
Moreover,  the  moral  tone  and  quality  of  the  individual 
depends  vitally  upon  physical  structure,  functional 
health,  and  bodily  vigor. 

The  person  who  has  dyspepsia  or  other  physiologic 
disorders  is  apt  to  be  depressed  mentally ;  lacking  in 
energy  to  do  things,  and  frequently  morbid  in 
conscience.  The  vicious,  criminally  minded,  and  im- 
moral have  often  been  found  to  be  deformed  or 
diseased,  and  incapable,  therefore,  of  meeting  human 
responsibilities.  "Weakness  is  often  akin  to  wicked- 
ness." 

In  many  cases  no  clear  distinction  can  be  made 
between  weakness  of  body,  mind,  or  soul.  Some  real 
and  other  apparent  exceptions  to  this  statement  do 
not  dfcjprove  the  fact,  or  lessen  the  importance  of  the 
genera*!) rinciple.  The  importance  of  the  so-called 
physicaMjhen,  is  to  be  estimated  in  its  relation  to  the 
highest  arfd  best  faculties  of  the  human  being  which 
depend  upon  and  express  themselves  through  the 
human  organism. 

INHERITED  CHARACTERISTICS 

More  extraordinary  than  the  unity  of  the  individual 
human  being  is  the  continuity  of  human  life.  Hered- 
ity is  a  vague  and  comprehensive  term  referring  to  all 
the  influences  affecting  the  child  up  to  the  time  he  is 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH  i93 

born,  coming  from  parents,  grandparents,  and  all  the 
ancestors  back  to  the  beginning  of  living  things,  from 
which  the  child  is  descended.  The  number  of  bones 
and  organs ;  the  shape  of  the  body ;  the  relation  of  its 
parts ;  similarity  in  color  of  hair ;  expression  of  face ; 
even  in  gesture  and  gait,  are  all  inherited  in  various 
degrees  by  child  from  parent. 

More  subtle  characteristics  in  temperament,  mental 
and  moral  qualities  seem  to  be  handed  down  in  fam- 
ilies. Individual  deformities  due  to  accident  or  in- 
jury are  not  inherited,  and  many  of  the  popular  beliefs 
regarding  prenatal  influences  are  without  foundation 
in  fact. 

TENDENCY  IN  HEREDITY 

Different  from  the  inherited  characteristics  already 
briefly  alluded  to  are  the  organic  influences  trans- 
mitted directly  from  parent  to  child,  and  of  much 
hygienic  importance.  Children  are  rarely  stronger 
and  healthier  than  their  parents,  unless  special  atten- 
tion is  given  to  physical  education.  Much  more  fre- 
quently where  there  is  a  real  difference,  the  children 
are  less  robust  and  more  inclined  to  disease.  Ten- 
dencies to  degeneration  and  disease  are  much  more 
apt  to  be  transmitted  than  the  tendency  to  improve- 
ment of  any  kind. 

The  diseases  due  to  immorality  and  vicious  living 
are  most  apt  to  be  transmitted  to  children.  Tenden- 
cies to  gout,  rheumatism,  some  diseases  of  the  heart 
and  other  vital  organs,  and  the  various  nervous  dis- 


1 94  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

orders  are  not  infrequently  transmitted  from  parent 
to  child.  Tuberculosis  —  either  of  the  lungs  or  of 
other  parts  of  the  body  —  is  almost  never  transmitted 
directly,  but  the  tendency  or  susceptibility  to  tuber- 
culosis —  transmitted  to  the  child  by  the  tuberculous 
parent  —  is  one  of  the  most  definite  and  serious  facts 
in  human  life. 

The  fundamental  and  inalienable  birthright  of  the 
child  is  that  he  shall  be  born  of  parents  and  earlier 
ancestors  who  have  lived  their  lives  with  an  intelligent 
and  conscientious  sense  of  their  responsibility  to  their 
possible  descendants. 

RIGHT  LIVING 

The  science  of  healthy  living  is  to-day  well  under- 
stood by  a  few  (physicians  and  others) ,  but  in  general 
and  in  relation  to  its  intrinsic  importance,  hygiene 
rceives  less  attention  than  any  other  subject. 

More  serious  yet  is  the  fact  that  in  the  care  of 
health,  conduct  falls  so  far  short  of  the  knowledge 
which  people  have  upon  this  subject.  Nowhere  in 
the  realm  of  human  affairs  is  there  a  greater  gap 
between  theory  and  practice,  between  knowledge  and 
action,  than  in  the  matter  of  hygiene.  It  is  claimed, 
and  probably  is  true,  that  human  life  is  on  the  average 
longer  to-day  than  it  was  a  few  generations  ago. 
Nevertheless,  the  human  animal  is  the  least  sound 
organically  of  all  the  species  of  living  things  —  i.  e., 
less  free  from  disease,   and  further  from  the  best 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH  i95 

health  and  power  possible  if  adequate  attention  and 
care  were  given  to  health. 

INSTINCT  VERSUS   INTELLIGENCE 

In  nature,  under  the  guidance  of  instinct,  the  wild 
animals  live  healthy  lives  and  transmit  to  their  young 
the  capacity  for  the  highest  degree  of  strength  and 
health.  They  strive  for  the  best  conditions  of  life 
possible  to  them,  and  in  so  doing  work  unconsciously 
for  the  best  health  of  their  offspring  and  the  race  to 
whicn  they  belong.  Thus  does  nature  insure  a  fine 
quality  of  life  among  her  creatures.  The  first  effort 
of  the  animal  is  for  self-preservation,  although  at 
times  life  is  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  the  young.  The 
weak  and  injured  are  left  to  perish,  and  there  are  lack- 
ing in  the  animal  world  many  of  the  finer  and  nobler 
human  attributes,  but  a  high  standard  of  health  in 
the  species  is  maintained. 

Human  beings  are  not  guided  so  surely  by  instinct 
as  are  the  animals,  nor  are  they  usually  as  healthy  and 
strong  as  the  creatures  in  nature.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  intelligence,  reason,  and  conscience  do  not 
impel  civilized  men  and  women  to  lead  as  healthy, 
wholesome  lives  as  the  animals  live  under  the  guidance 
of  instinct  in  nature.  Human  beings  are  not  yet  wise 
enough  to  realize  in  practice  the  true  value  of  the 
highest  physical  efficiency  and  their  responsibility 
for  it 


1 96  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

DUTY  TO  POSTERITY 

Each  human  being  has  received  from  his  ancestors 
life  and  a  certain  capacity  for  health  and  strength. 
The  people  of  this  generation  must  be  the  parents 
of  the  next,  and  thus  each  generation  is  the  con- 
necting link  between  all  the  life  of  the  past  and 
all  the  life  of  the  future.  This  responsibility  im- 
posed by  nature  of  receiving  life  from  the  past  and 
handing  it  on  to  the  future  is  a  racial  obligation; 
is  fundamental  and  must  receive  much  more  intelli- 
gent and  rational  human  care  than  has  yet  been 
given  to  it. 

The  duty  to  be  well  and  strong,  to  maintain  the 
best  possible  standard  of  organic  soundness,  to  im- 
prove one's  human  power  and  efficiency  to  the  highest 
possible  pitch,  is  owed  to  one's  self,  to  one's  ancestors, 
to  one's  contemporaries,  and  vastly  more  to  one's 
children,  and  to  the  children's  children  in  coming  gen- 
erations. Human  life  and  health  are  not  simply 
individual  possessions  to  be  controlled  solely  or  pri- 
marily for  immediate  ends ;  to  be  sacrificed  for  personal 
caprice  or  even  ambition.  They  may  not  contribute 
alone  to  individual  achievements,  however  worthy 
such  may  be  or  seem.  They  may  in  justice  be  used 
for  the  present  only  so  far  as  such  immediate  use  does 
not  detract  from  but  rather  enhances  their  value  for 
the  future  offspring  whose  chance  for  life  and  health 
depends  upon  their  present  treatment  and  care.  A 
clear  understanding  of  this  great  continuity  of  life  and 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH  197 

its  implications  will  modify  human  thought  and  con- 
duct in  manifold  ways. 

CIVILIZATION  AND  HEALTH 

Human  demands  and  interests  to-day  are  much 
more  numerous  and  confused  than  those  of  the  ani- 
mals, or  even  those  of  primitive  man.  Civilization 
rapidly  increases  the  complexity  of  the  human  envi- 
ronment and  multiplies  to  confusion  the  demands  upon 
time  and  strength.  Many  of  these  lead  away  from, 
and  not  a  few  are  in  direct  opposition,  to  the  laws  of 
rational  and  wholesome  living. 

Instinct  guides  the  animal  wisely  in  a  multitude  of 
ways,  while  man  too  often  ignorantly  or  heedlessly 
stumbles  through  life,  using  haphazard,  and  perhaps 
destructively,  the  precious  heritage  of  the  ages. 

SELFISHNESS 

Human  selfishness  causes  much  of  the  irrational  and 
unhygienic  living  and  often  prevents  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  health  which  are  well  known.  The  objects 
for  which  people  struggle  are  often  superficial  in 
value,  and  if  attained  are  frequently  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  health  and  perhaps  of  other  values  even 
more  important  than  health  in  our  human  world. 
Money  beyond  what  is  needed;  fashionable  houses; 
furniture  and  clothing  beyond  that  which  is  required 
for  the  highest  living;  fame  in  the  commerical,  polit- 
ical, social,  or  scholastic  world  beyond  what  is  rational ; 


198  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

all  these  and  other  motives  impel  many  beyond  what 
is  their  reasonable  best  at  the  expense  of  other  and 
more  important  values.  But  worse  than  the  penal- 
ties involved  for  the  adult  person  through  unwise 
action  are  the  injuries  done  to  the  health  and  the 
future  of  children  through  the  folly  and  ignorance  of 
parents. 

It  seems  of  slight  moment  comparatively  to  sacrifice 
some  sleep,  some  rest,  some  healthful  exercises  when 
human  affairs  crowd;  or  to  eat  more  than  is  needed, 
or  a  dish  less  wholesome,  that  the  taste  may  be  grati- 
fied. These  errors  are  usually  less  serious  for  the 
grown  person  than  for  the  child,  but  they  are  all 
wrong  in  principle,  and  they  are  often  due  to  some 
degree  of  selfishness. 

PROTECTION  OF  HEALTH  PARAMOUNT 

Health  is  not  the  highest  or  finest  value  in  human 
life,  nor  is  it  the  chief  end  of  living,  but  health  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  the  best  success  in  the  life  and  work 
of  the  individual,  and  it  is  even  more  important  for 
the  welfare  of  human  society  and  of  the  race.  The 
child's  health  should  be  sacrificed  to  nothing  else  by 
the  parent,  the  teacher,  or  the  community;  and  in 
adult  life  health  should  be  given  for  other  things 
only  very  rarely.  This  protection  of  health  should 
not  be  given  in  any  selfish  way,  nor  should  it  conflict 
in  child  or  adult  with  the  expression  of  human  cour- 
age, self-sacrifice,  and  devotion  to  the  needs  of  others. 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH  199 

The  risking  of  health  or  life  even,  in  the  effort  to  help 
or  save  a  fellow  being  in  emergency,  must  always  be 
considered  higher  and  finer  conduct  than  mere  self- 
preservation  or  care.  However,  this  unselfish  devo- 
tion of  life  and  strength  to  others  is  not  a  real  excep- 
tion to  the  rule  of  health  preservation,  but  empha- 
sizes the  importance  of  considering  health  care  a  duty, 
in  order  that  one  may  be  most  efficiently  prepared  for 
life  emergencies. 

In  relative  value  the  life  and  health  of  the  child  is 
more  important  than  that  of  the  parent  because  he 
has  more  of  his  life  ahead  with  its  undeveloped  possi- 
bilities, and  the  child  of  to-day  will  be  the  parent  of 
the  children  of  the  next  generation. 

This  great  racial  obligation,  if  recognized,  must  give 
each  individual  a  stronger  reason  and  an  inspiring 
motive  for  the  best  care  of  health  which  human 
science  may  show  to  him. 

"NO  MAN  LIVETH  TO  HIMSELF  ALONE" 

The  short-sighted  and  spasmodic  attention  given 
to  health,  ordinarily,  leads  people  to  guard  their  phy- 
sical welfare  as  if  it  belonged  solely  to  them ;  as  if  no 
one  else,  at  least  beyond  their  immediate  family  and 
children,  had  any  claim  upon  it.  Parents  usually 
foster  their  children's  health  as  if  the  world  were  to 
end  with  the  child.  This  well  intended  but  often 
misdirected  attention  frequently  makes  the  child 
selfish   and    too    self-conscious.     This    protection    of 


200  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

health  for  one's  self  and  for  the  children  under  one's 
care  —  whether  as  parent  or  teacher  —  should  con- 
stantly aim. to  make  the  individual  more  capable  and 
effective  in  doing  for  others.  In  this  way,  the  care 
of  health,  instead  of  being  a  self-centred  process,  may 
become  an  impelling  factor  in  higher  and  better  living. 

IDEALS  IN  LIVING 

To  maintain  the  highest  standard  of  health  possible 
to  each  individual  involves  an  unselfish,  intelligent 
devotion  to  high  ideals  of  living  and  a  sacrifice  of 
present  indulgences  to  future  well-being.  Instinct, 
feeling,  and  appetite  are  useful  indications,  but  they 
must  be  controlled  and  guided  by  reason  and  judg- 
ment. The  individual  who  eats  at  regular  intervals, 
in  suitable  amounts,  the  portions  of  food  intelligently 
adapted  to  his  needs  will  in  the  long  run,  and  fre- 
quently from  the  beginning,  have  better  health  and 
get  more  pleasure  from  eating  than  the  person  who 
consumes  without  judgment  what  he  happens  to 
crave.  The  person  who  takes  muscular  exercise 
rationally  will  enjoy  movement,  while  the  individual 
who  neglects  wholesome  activity  soon  loses  the  pleas- 
ure of  exercise.  Thus  does  nature  reward  those  who 
obey,  and  punish  those  w*ao  violate,  the  laws  of  life 
and  health 

Human  appetites  and  desires  bring  genuine  satis- 
faction only  to  those  who  control  instinct  and  passion 
for  the  welfare  of  the  family,  of  society,  and  the  race. 


ETHICS  OF  HEALTH  201 

Happiness  here,  as  in  other  phases  of  life,  cannot  be 
attained  simply  by  pursuing  it  for  its  own  sake. 
True  happiness  is  simply  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction 
accompanying  wise  conduct. 

Consistent  living  will  bridge  the  gap  between  the 
knowledge  and  practice  of  hygiene,  but  it  is  important 
to  remember  that  people  will  not  live  consistently 
simply  through  the  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health. 
Too  many  other  goals  in  life  appeal  to  the  mind  and 
ambition  of  the  individual. 

A  rational  consistent  care  of  health  is  a  fundamental 
and  most  important  duty  for  each  one,  and  the  human 
conscience  must  be  aroused  to  the  importance  of  this 
duty.  The  duty  to  health  must  become  a  part  of  one's 
religion.  The  conscience  must  be  touched,  the 
heart  thrilled,  and  the  imagination  fired  with  a  com- 
pelling devotion  to  this  ideal  of  living  which  will  hold 
the  individual  to  a  care  of  health,  which  will  be  in 
accord  with  the  more  immediate  and  the  large  rela- 
tions and  responsibilities. 


THE  USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS 

By  H.  M.  Lufkin,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Physical  Diagnosis  and  Clinical  Medicine,  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota 


The  teaching  of  medicine  in  the  earliest  periods  of 
recorded  history  was  associated  with  the  offices  of 
religious  worship.  The  little  known  of  medicine, 
confined  to  the  priestcraft,  was  jealously  guarded  and 
its  administration  surrounded  by  the  mystic  rights 
and  superstitious  practices  common  to  an  age  when 
the  operation  of  natural  laws  was  ascribed  to  the 
occult.  The  dawn  of  the  Christian  era  witnessed  a 
gradual  decline  of  the  priestly  influence  in  medicine 
and  independent  philosophers  and  scholars,  or 
"savants,"  made  their  names  famous  by  their  medical 
teaching.  Through  the  intervening  centuries  prog- 
ress in  medicine  has  kept  pace  with  the  other 
sciences.  Schools  and  dogmas  have  risen,  attained 
more  or  less  fame;  have  contributed  perhaps  some- 
thing or  nothing  to  the  sum  total  of  accepted  fact, 
and  sinking  again  into  oblivion,  have  been  followed 
by  other  schools  and  dogmas. 

Until  the  advance  of  the  related  sciences  made 
research  productive,  medicine  remained  more  an  art 
than  a  science.  Chemistry,  physics,  botany,  experi- 
mental physiology,  and  biology  are  the  handmaidens 

of  a  broad  and  enlightened  profession.     Growing  out 

202 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  203 

of  the  general  advance,  and  as  a  result  of  the  accumu- 
lated knowledge,  one  great  and  illuminating  fact 
stands  out  at  the  present  time,  and  that  is,  that 
the  prevention  of  disease  is  easier  to  effect  than  its 
cure. 

"Health  is  that  condition  of  the  system  in  which 
all  the  organs  of  the  body  and  mind  act  in  harmony 
and  without  sensible  disturbance."  It  is  a  truism 
that,  "In  the  health  of  the  people  lies  the  strength  of 
the  nation." 

The  public  health  is  the  sum  total  of  that  of  all  its 
individuals.  Hence,  the  individual  has  the  responsi- 
bility of  considering  himself  as  an  independent  unit 
and  as  a  part  of  the  body  politic.  Aside  from  the 
personal  discomfort  of  ill  health  he  must  consider  his 
influence  upon  the  community  at  large.  Hence, 
enlightened  governments  provide  and  administer 
laws  safeguarding  the  public  health. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    DISEASES 

Diseases  may  be  broadly  classified  as  junctional 
and  organic.  Functional  diseases  are  characterized 
by  the  arrest  of  a  function  of  a  part  or  all  of  the  cells 
of  an  organ  engaged  in  some  essential  duty  involving 
the  integrity  of  nutrition  and  elimination.  So  long 
as  the  disorder  is  purely  functional,  such  cells  or 
groups  of  cells  do  not  undergo  permanent  structural 
change.  When  a  structural  change  takes  place  in 
the  cell  or  group  of  cells  constituting  an  organ,  just 


204  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

so  far  has  functional  disease  given  way  to  organic 
disease. 

A  healthy  functionating  organ  is  capable  of  resisting, 
by  its  natural  powers,  surprisingly  long-continued 
and  often  serious  attacks  upon  its  integrity.  Such 
attacks  commonly  stand  for  the  violation  of  well- 
recognized  laws  of  health  and  may  be  referred  to 
ignorance,  inadvertence,  weak  will  power,  or  un- 
wholesome environment  or  occupation. 

If  the  disturbance  has  not  been  too  acute  and  is 
recent,  the  proper  application  of  the  rules  of  hygiene 
which  shall  correct  the  particular  fault  —  get  at  the 
cause  —  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  a  cure.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  impairment  of  one  function 
sets  up  a  "vicious  circle"  which  operates  on  other 
functions,  this  in  turn  vitiating  the  natural  phys- 
iological resistance  of  the  fluids  of  the  body  to  the 
invasion  of  infection.  In  this  way,  always  insidious 
and  at  first  scarcely  noticeable  to  the  victim,  do 
the  cells  of  the  body  fall  prey  to  the  degenerative 
changes  which  constitute  acute  and  chronic  organic 
disease. 

The  dividing  line  between  functional  and  organic 
disease  is  not  always  to  be  recognized. 

An  organ  may  be  partially  destroyed  and  yet  carry 
on  its  function  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  fashion.  A 
part  of  the  lung  may  be  destroyed,  and  yet  nearly 
perfect  health  is  maintained  through  the  capacity  of 
the  rest  of  the  organ  to  perform  the  function  of  that 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  205 

destroyed.  One  kidney  will  often  do  the  work  of 
both  when  either  has  been  removed.  Sometimes  an 
organ  may  be  completely  removed,  and  yet  analogous 
structures  carry  on  its  work,  as  has  been  proved  by 
the  total  extirpation  of  the  stomach. 

SYMPTOMS 

A  disordered  function  or  disease  is  made  manifest 
through  abnormal  sensations  or  feelings,  called  symp- 
toms. Symptoms  are  called  subjective  when  they 
are  felt  by  the  patient;'  objective  when  they  are  only 
to  be  known  by  the  observation  of  the  patient  by 
another  person. 

Headache,  pain,  fever,  are  subjective  symptoms 
and  warn  the  patient  of  a  disordered  system.  Albu- 
men in  the  urine,  the  character  of  the  pulse,  are 
objective  symptoms.  It  is  the  sum  total  of  these 
which  enables  the  physician  to  diagnose  the  abnormal 
condition. 

DRUGS  AS  CURATIVE  AGENTS 

From  the  days  of  mysticism  in  medicine,  to  the 
present  time,  it  has  been  sought  to  relieve  symptoms 
and  so  cure  disease  by  the  administration  of  drugs. 
To  find  the  "Elixir  of  Life"  was  one  of  the  great 
goals  of  the  alchemists. 

The  first  use  of  drugs  was  purely  empirical.  That 
is,  if  the  patient  recovered  by  the  use  of  a  drug,  it 
was  assumed  that  the  drug  caused  the  cure,  and  was 
administered  in  similar  cases. 


206  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Much  valuable  information  has  thus  been  obtained 
and  incorporated  in  our  materia  medica.  The  mode 
of  cure,  the  effect  upon  the  tissues  or  functions  as 
such,  were  not  known.  A  notable  example  of  the 
large  empirical  use  of  a  drug  was  that  of  quinine  upon 
its  introduction.  The  curative  uses  of  quinine  are 
now  known  to  be  very  limited. 

Certain  other  drugs,  like  mercury  and  salicylates 
attained  to  the  dignity  of  so-called  specifics,  i.  e., 
in  certain  affections  their  curative  virtues  were  con- 
sidered universal.     This  class  of  drugs  is  very  limited. 

HOW  DRUGS  ACT 

A  second  class  are  the  drugs  whose  action  has  been 
studied  upon  animals  and  their  power  over  the  various 
functions  of  the  body  noted,  and  this  action  applied 
to  the  modification  of  function  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  disease.  This  class  is  very  large,  and  its 
use  constitutes  the  bulk  of  prescribing  to-day.  As 
knowledge  of  drug  action  has  become  more  exact, 
empiricism  has  steadily  given  way  to  the  modern 
prescription  —  a  single  drug,  directed  to  a  definite 
purpose.  The  so-called  "shot-gun"  prescription 
involved  the  combination  of  many  drugs  in  the  hope 
that  Nature's  selective  power  would  supply  the  de- 
ficiency of  the  prescriber.  It  is  now  happily  seldom 
seen  outside  of  patent  medicines.  The  use  of  drugs 
in  the  physiological  sense,  is  the  most  exacting  method 
of  prescribing  for  the  sick.     It  presupposes  a  clear 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  207 

knowledge  of  the  effect  of  the  drug  upon  a  given 
function  and  system  at  large 

HOW  DRUGS  ACT.     (PHYSIOLOGICAL  ACTION) 

The  most  commonly  used  drugs  are  anodynes  — 
pain-relieving  drugs.  Opium  and  cocaine,  antipyrine 
and  acetanilid  are  examples.  Opium  acts  through  its 
influence  upon  the  circulation  of  the  brain,  producing 
first  an  afflux  of  the  blood  to  that  organ  and  then  a 
decrease  of  the  same,  through  the  nerve  centers  con- 
trolling the  caliber  of  the  blood  vessels  (vaso-motor 
nerves) .  In  the  absence  of  undue  excitability  of  the 
nerves,  there  is  produced  a  condition  resembling 
normal  sleep.  In  large  doses  its  action  is  profound, 
producing  the  following  effects:  Profound  stupor, 
complete  anasthesia,  paralysis  of  the  respiratory 
centers,  paralysis  of  kidneys,  and  finally  from  habitual 
use,  profound  changes  in  nutrition  and  in  the  psychic 
centers,  resulting  in  emaciation,  moral  perversions 
and  imbecility.  Such  drugs  have  a  far-reaching 
effect,  and  are  common  ingredients  of  patent  medi- 
cines. 

Stimulants  are  such  drugs  as  have  for  their  primary 
action  the  stimulation  of  all  the  functions  of  the  body, 
or  exert  their  chief  influence  on  some  special  function. 

Alcohol  is  used  as  a  general  stimulant,  while 
strychnine,  belladonna,  cannabis  indica,  digitalis,  are 
examples  of  special  stimulants,  each  acting  through 
one  or  more  nerve  centers,  yet  all  are  rank  poisons, 


208  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

and  destructive,  not  only  of  function,  but  of  life,  in 
excessive  doses. 

Hypnotics  or  sleep-producing  drugs.  In  this  class 
may  be  included  some  of  the  narcotic  drugs,  such  as 
opium  and  cocaine.  They  operate  through  direct 
influence  upon  the  brain.  Chloral  hydrate  is  the 
standard  by  which  these  drugs  are  judged.  A  pure 
hypnotic  produces  sleep,  but  does  not  relieve  pain. 
They  have  secondary  actions,  which  make  their  use 
hazardous  by  the  unskilled. 

Diuretics  stimulate  the  function  of  the  kidneys. 

Diaphoretics  act  upon  the  sweat  glands  through 
their  nerve  supply,  increasing  perspiration. 

Cathartics  promote  loose  evacuations  of  the  bowels, 
a  class  of  drugs  widely  exploited  by  patent  medicine 
vendors.  They  act  in  various  ways,  through  stimu- 
lating the  flow  of  bile,  by  stimulating  the  muscular 
walls  of  the  bowels,  by  stimulating  the  secretion  of 
the  intestinal  glands.  Cathartics  are  widely  used, 
and  seldom  with  advantage,  except  for  brief  periods 
of  time,  and  then  should  be  selected  for  the  special 
condition  which  calls  for  their  use.  The  secondary 
effect  of  most  cathartics  is  to  intensify  the  abnormal 
condition  they  are  used  to  overcome. 

There  are  many  other  classes  of  drugs,  and  in  each 
class  are  many  drugs  whose  actions,  in  the  main,  are 
similar,  yet  whose  differences  render  the  choice  a 
matter  of  knowledge  and  discrimination  impossible 
for  the  layman  to  acquire. 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  209 

There  is  not  a  function  which  can  not  be  altered 
by  drug  action.  There  is  hardly  to  be  found  a 
diseased  function  which  may  not  be  influenced  for 
the  better  by  the  wise  use  of  a  drug.  The  converse  is 
true.  There  is  no  drug,  unless  inert,  which  does  not 
in  some  degree  change  a  function,  by  acting  upon  one 
or  more  organs,  either  directly  through  its  chemical 
activities,  or  its  less  well-understood,  though  more 
common,  influence  upon  the  tropic  (nutrient)  or  other 
nerve  centers.  Not  uncommonly  drugs  have  a  double 
action,  and  while  beneficial  in  one  direction  are  posi- 
tively harmful  in  another.  Yet  such  a  drug  may 
have  its  evil  influence  neutralized  or  balanced  by  one 
of  opposite  action  combined  with  it.  A  group  of  drugs 
much  used  of  late  are  good  pain  relievers  or  anodynes, 
yet  they  have  a  powerful  depressing  action  upon  the 
heart.  A  simple  heart  stimulant,  combined  with 
such  drugs,  eliminates,  when  judiciously  used,  the 
evil  effect,  while  the  desired  effect  is  not  impaired. 

In  this  way  many  valuable  combinations  are 
brought  about,  greatly  enlarging  the  field  of  scientific 
therapeutics.  This  seldom  involves  the  use  of  more 
than  one  or  two  drugs.  Often  the  happiest  effects 
may  be  brought  about  in  this  way,  and  helpful  action 
sustained  over  long  periods. 

OTHER  METHODS 

There  are  other  methods  of  using  drugs.  The  home- 
opathic method  is  the  opposite  of  this  physiologic. 


210  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

If  a  remedy  creates  certain  morbid  manifestations  in 
the  healthy  individual,  it  is  administered  for  a  similar 
morbid  state  when  the  result  of  disease.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  dose  should  not  be  sufficient  to  set  up  its 
physiological  action.  Ipecac  causes,  in  large  doses, 
excessive  nausea  and  vomiting.  In  small  doses  it 
relieves  nausea  and  vomiting. 

Organotherapy.  This  branch  of  therapeutics,  al- 
though in  its  infancy,  promises  large  results.  It  is 
based  primarily  upon  the  theory  that  the  secretions 
of  certain  organs  of  the  body,  by  becoming  deficient, 
take  from  the  system  an  essential  element  which  is 
necessary  to  the  general  well-being.  The  absence  or 
disease  of  a  small  gland  in  the  neck  (thyroid),  whose 
function  was  not  known,  was  observed  to  be  a  constant 
accompaniment  of  a  certain  disease  ending  in  insanity. 

The  same  gland  from  a  healthy  animal  was  found 
to  supply  the  deficiency  and  cure  the  disease  when 
taken  in  small  quantities.  Investigation  has  proved 
the  value  of  such  remedies  in  a  wide  variety  of  diseases. 

All  use  of  drugs  involves  the  wisest  discrimination, 
based  upon  thorough  familiarity  with  drug  action, 
and  with  the  organic  structure  and  function  of  the 
human  system,  from  the  minute  cell  to  the  complete 
animal.  This  must  be  combined  with  knowledge 
of  the  condition  and  peculiarities  of  each  patient. 

DRUGS  MAY  HELP,  NATURE  CURES 

While  many  drugs  are  capable  of  destroying  cell 
life,  there  is  yet  to  be  known  a  drug  which  can  create 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  211 

a  new  cell.  The  power  which  creates  the  new  cell, 
the  vital  force,  may  be  favorably  or  unfavorably 
influenced  by  drug  action.  Or,  the  same  drug  may 
work  harm  or  benefit,  according  to  the  dose. 

Some  of  our  most  useful  drugs,  in  which  small  doses 
have  an  effect  upon  the  system  of  great  usefulness, 
are  destructive  to  life  in  larger  doses.  A  drug  which 
stimulates  as  its  primary  effect  either  over-stimulates 
on  continued  use,  and  thereby  may  permanently 
weaken,  or  tolerance  is  established,  and  increasing 
doses  are  required  to  keep  up  its  effect. 

The  proper  use  of  drugs,  then,  is  to  give  some  organ 
or  organs  of  the  body  temporary  assistance,  and  thus 
enable  them  to  resume  their  normal  functions 
Nature  only  can  effect  a  lasting  cure. 

The  prescribing  of  drugs  for  diseases  and  their 
symptoms  has  become  systematized,  and  through 
their  use  many  lives  have  been  lengthened,  at  the 
same  time  the  limits  of  their  usefulness  as  curative 
agents  are  becoming  better  established,  so  that  useless 
drugging,  a  practice  until  recently  almost  universal, 
is  giving  place  to  other  rational  methods  of  cure. 
For  example,  the  use  of  electricity,  massage,  baths, 
open  air  and  feeding  (the  most  successful  for  tuber- 
culosis) ;  the  wide  scope  of  surgery  which  has  invaded 
the  field  of  medicine  in  many  affections  (epilepsy, 
ulcer  of  stomach). 

The  public  attitude  is  well  illustrated  by  this  inci- 
dent:    A  dressmaker  called  for  relief  from  a  long 


212  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

train  of  nervous  and  dyspeptic  symptoms.  Her  case 
was  carefully  reviewed,  and  she  was  advised  as 
follows:  "Join  a  ladies'  gymnasium  class.  Take 
general  exercise  for  an  hour,  in  addition  to  the  class 
lesson,  each  day.  Eat  only  such  food  as  your  appetite 
demands.  Take  a  brisk  walk  out  of  doors  before 
each  meal.  Report  progress  in  a  month."  There 
was  a  moment  of  some  embarrassment,  as  the  lady 
felt  that  the  interview  was  ended.  "But  don't  I 
get  any  medicine?"  "No."  "Well,  you  are  the 
most  peculiar  doctor  I  ever  heard  of."  She  paid  the 
fee  with  the  remark:  "Well,  I  hardly  know  what  I  am 
paying  for."  Yet  in  a  month  the  patient  returned 
a  reformed,  healthy  woman,  a  result  which 
probably  could  not  be  attained  with  the  wisest  use 
of  drugs.  This  is  the  almost  universal  attitude  at 
the  present  time,  and  the  general  public  needs  to  be 
educated  in  the  lesson  taught  by  the  incident. 

THE  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS 

There  is  no  greater  responsibility  to  be  assumed 
than  that  of  advising  the  sick.  It  weighs  heavily 
upon  every  practitioner,  yet  this  great  responsibility 
is  shouldered  with  eagerness,  not  only  by  the  sick, 
but  by  his  neighbors.  Where  the  trained  scientist 
would  hesitate,  the  worse  than  untrained  layman  is 
eager. 

This  general  attitude  is  a  relic  of  the  days  when 
ignorance  of  drugs  was  universal.     No  drug  which 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  213 

has  any  virtue  as  a  medicine  can  be  taken  haphazard 
with  impunity.  If  not  directed  accurately  to  its 
appropriate  purpose  within  the  system,  it  is  an  added 
burden  to  the  sick  organ,  or  is  directly  destructive 
of  function,  and  handicaps  Nature's  effort  at  a  cure. 

Widespread  harm  arises  from  the  misuse  and  abuse 
of  drugs.  That  many  survive  such  practices  is  true, 
but  what  of  the  many  who  are  sacrificed  ?  The 
neighbor  or  friend  recommends  only  such  patent 
medicines  or  other  drugs  as  have  come  to  his  limited 
attention.  He  can  know  nothing  of  the  disease,  or 
of  the  drug's  action.  The  laws  of  most  states  pre- 
scribe the  amount  of  knowledge  a  physician  must 
have  before  he  may  practice  his  art.  Nor  will  his 
word  be  accepted,  but  he  must  pass  an  examination 
on  all  branches  of  medicine.  The  people  are  thus 
safeguarded  from  incompetency.  Yet  there  is  no 
law  which  protects  the  sick  from  the  gratuitous 
unskilled  counsel  of  his  friends. 

The  law  compels  the  druggist  to  attest  full  knowl- 
edge of  the  drugs  he  dispenses,  yet  permits  the  public 
to  buy  and  use  secret  nostrums  or  patent  medicines 
of  the  most  vicious  and  demoralizing  types.  No 
law  can  prevent  a  willing  victim  from  accepting 
advice,  or  the  giver  from  giving  advice.  A  proper 
appreciation  of  personal  hygiene  and  the  self-respect- 
ing application  of  the  same  will  teach  the  folly  of  the 
indiscriminate  use  of  drugs. 


214  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

PATENT  MEDICINES 

The  pure  food  law,  which  contains  a  clause  on 
patent  medicines,  will  perhaps  ameliorate  this  to  a 
limited  extent.  It  requires  a  label  bearing  the  per 
cent  of  alcohol,  morphine,  opium,  cocaine,  heroin, 
chloroform,  cannabis  indica,  chloral  hydrate  or  acetan- 
ilid  on  all  sealed  packages.  A  law  which  would 
limit  a  nostrum  to  its  legitimate  uses  would  be  of 
service.  The  nostrum  itself,  in  the  vast  majority 
of  cases,  is  not  only  of  little  or  no  curative  value;  it 
is  demoralizing  to  the  patient. 

Even  more  widespread  is  the  harm  brought  about 
by  the  method  of  the  advertiser  in  impelling  its  use  by 
the  sick.  First,  by  lying  in  the  most  unscrupulous 
way  about  the  effects  and  cures  of  his  nostrum. 
Second,  by  false  teaching,  magnifying  the  least  im- 
portant and  most  common  of  morbid  sensations  to  be 
the  serious  disease  which  the  nostrum  will  cure 
(a  backache  means  Bright's  disease).  Third,  the 
creation  of  imaginary  disease  by  suggestion,  creating 
hopeless  wrecks  of  their  victims.  Fourth,  the  im- 
moral influences  upon  the  unformed  wills  and  minds 
of  the  young. 

These  are  evils  apart  from  the  promiscuous  effect 
of  misused  drugs.  The  postoffice  department,  by 
excluding  from  the  mails  such  publications  as  lend 
themselves  to  this  sort  of  iniquity,  would  soon  bring 
about    amelioration    of    this    evil. 


USE  AND  ABUSE  OF  DRUGS  215 

COMPOSITION  OF  SOME  PATENT  MEDICINES 

CONTAINING    A    LARGE    PROPORTION    OF    ALCOHOL 

Peruna,  28%.  Ayer's  Sarsaparilla,  26%. 

Paine's  Celery  Compound,  21%.  Hood's  Sarsaparilla,  18%. 
Lydia  E.  Pinkham's  Vegetable  Hostetter's  Stomach  Bitters, 
Compound,  20%.  44%- 

Burdock  Blood  Bitters,   25%. 

CONTAINING    MORPHINE    (OPIUM) 

Mrs.  Winslow's  Soothing  Dr.  Bull's  Cough  Syrup. 

Syrup.  Fenner's  Cough  Honey. 

Kopp's  Baby  Friend.  Chamberlain's  Colic  Remedy. 

CONTAINING  COCAINE 

Birney's  Catarrhal  Powder.  Agnew's  Catarrh  Powders. 

Dr.  Cole's  Catarrh  Cure.  I.  C.  R.  Instant  Catarrh  Cure 

Gray's  Catarrh  Cure.  Prentzinger's  Catarrh  Balsam 

Crown  Catarrh  Powder.  Compressed    Voice    Tablets 

CONTAINING   ACETANILID 

Orangeine  Cephalgine 

Bromo-Seltzer  Dr.    Davis's   Headache   Pow- 

Antikamnia  ders. 

Royal  Pain  Powder.  Anti-Headache. 

Megrinine  Miniature  Headache  Powders. 

Ammonol  Nerve  Ease. 

Salacetin  Klein's  Kold  Kapsules 

Phenalgin.  Dr.  Holbrook's  Kold  Powders. 

Note. — The  above  list  is  taken  from  the  reports  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts State  Board  of  Health,  and  the  articles  on  "The 
Great  American  Fraud,"  published  in  Collier's  Weekly  on 
October  7,  28,  November  4,  18,  and  December  2,  1905,  and 
January  13,  February  17,  April  28,  July  14,  August  4, 
September  1  and  22,  1906. 

When  the  National  Pure  Food  Law  becomes  operative, 
after  January  1,  1907,  it  may  be  expected  that  the  composi- 
tion of  some  of  the  patent  medicines  will  be  changed  some- 
what, as  the  law  requires  that  a  statement  be  made  on  the 
label  of  the  quantity  of  certain  drugs. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES 

By  Maurice  LeBosquet,  S.  B. 

Paper  read  at  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  on  Home  Economics, 
September,  1906. 

A  few  months  ago,  in  the  interest  of  our  students, 
we  began  investigations  of  the  work  of  the  National 
and  State  Health  Departments.  If  hygiene  is  the 
chief  basis  of  home  economics,  the  members  of  the 
Lake  Placid  Conference  may  be  interested  in  the 
following  report,  which  is  by  no  means  complete. 

After  some  little  inquiry,  the  health  department  of 
the  central  government  was  found  to  be  a  part  of  the 
Miscellaneous  Division  of  the  Department  of  the 
Treasury,  entitled  Public  Health  and  the  Marine 
Hospital  Service.  Surgeon  General  Walter  Wyman 
is  at  the  head  of  the  Department  which  has  charge 
of  the  marine  hospitals,  preventing  the  spread  of 
epidemics,  quarantine  service  and  the  public  health. 
In  1905  this  Department  spent  over  a  million  dollars. 
Apparently  only  $20,000  was  spent  directly  for 
sanitary  inspection  in  the  United  States,  the  re- 
mainder being  spent  for  maintaining  stations  and 
hospitals,  in  quarantine  work,  and  in  Cuba,  South 
America  and  foreign  ports. 

The  Board  consists  of  118  officers,  surgeon  gen- 
erals and  assistant  surgeons,  which  maintains  a 
hygienic  laboratory  in  Washington  for  the  exami- 
nation of  antitoxines,  serums,  etc.  The  Laboratory 
is  also  investigating  various  public  health  problems. 
The  Yellow  Fever  Institute  is  continuing  its  inves- 

216 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  217 

tigations  of  yellow  fever  under  the  charge  of  the 
Public  Health  Department,  and  investigations  in 
leprosy  are  in  progress  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
Other  investigations  are  also  in  progress  on  cholera, 
the  plague,  hook-worm  disease,  prevalent  in  the 
southern  states  and  Porto  Rico. 

Under  the  law  of  1902  establishing  the  Depart- 
ment, the  Public  Health .  officers  are  authorized  to 
hold  an  annual  conference  of  the  State  and  Territorial 
Health  Boards  in  Washington.  Four  conferences 
have  been  held. 

PUBLICATIONS 

The  annual  report  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Health  and  Marine  Hospital  Service — a  book  of 
about  500  pages — is  made  up  chiefly  of  statistics 
and  departmental  reports,  but  contains  a  number 
of  articles  of  interest.  It  is  sent  out  pretty  gen- 
erally. The  Public  Health  Reports  are  published 
weekly  and  are  purely  statistical,  containing  records 
of  death  throughout  the  United  States. 

The  Hygienic  Laboratory  issues  bulletins  of  tech- 
nical and  scientific  interest.  The  Yellow  Fever  Insti- 
tute has  published  fifteen  technical  bulletins  relating  to 
yellow  fever. 

The  department  issues  no  popular  bulletins  for  gen- 
eral distribution. 

Apparently  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Public  Health 
is  ably  and  efficiently  administered.  We  know  that 
it  has  done  wonderful  work  in  Cuba,  the  Philippines 
Porto  Rico,  and  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It 
stands  ready  to  help  out  state  authorities,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  recent  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  New 


2i 8  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Orleans.  The  United  States  Department  of  Health 
should  be  given  the  credit  of  the  discovery  that 
yellow  fever  is  transmitted  only  through  the  bite  of 
the  female  of  a  certain  variety  of  mosquito,  and 
some  of  the  credit  for  proving  that  malaria  is  trans- 
mitted in  the  same  way  by  another  species  of  mos- 
quito. 

STATE  BOARDS  OF  HEALTH 

A  letter  was  sent  out  to  all  the  prominent  states 
asking  for  their  last  yearly  report  and  any  bulletin 
which  they  had  for  distribution,  also  that  our  name 
might  be  placed  on  the  mailing  list  to  receive  future 
bulletins.  Twelve  annual  and  biennial  reports  were 
received,  and  a  number  of  them  contain  interesting 
articles  on  a  great  varietv  of  subjects. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  and  biennial  reports, 
which  presumably  all  the  State  Boards  of  Health 
publish,  quite  a  number  of  the  state  boards  pub- 
lish monthly,  bi-monthly,  or  quarterly  bulletins.  We 
have  received  the  following: 

Maine — Bi-monthly  bulletin,  July,  1906,  special  tuber- 
culosis number. 
New  Hampshire— Quarterly  bulletin  relating  to  pure 

food,  sanitation,  communicable  diseases. 
Vermont — Quarterly   bulletin,    special   articles,   pure 

food  reports. 
Massachusetts — Monthly  bulletin,  food  and  patent 
medicines  analyses  and  reports  of  dairy  inspec- 
tion, mortuary  statistics,  reports  of  epidemics, 
showing  causes. 
New  York — Monthly  bulletin,  chiefly  statistics  with 
brief  articles. 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  2ig 

Ohio — Monthly  bulletin,  articles  and  reports,  yearly 

subscription  25  cents. 
Indiana — Monthly    bulletin,    statistics,    food    work, 

brief  articles. 
Iowa — Monthly  bulletin,   news,   book  reviews,   brief 

articles. 
Wisconsin — Quarterly  bulletin,   brief  articles. 
Michigan  —  Quarterly      bulletin,       called      "Public 

Health,"  rather  long  articles  and  extracts. 
Colorado — Monthly  bulletin,  entirely  statistical. 
California — Monthly    bulletin,    statistics    and    brief 

extracts. 

Doubtless    other   states  issue  periodical  bulletins 
but  we  have  not  received  them. 

In  addition  to  the  monthly,  bi-monthly  or  quar- 
terly bulletins,  many  of  the  state  Departments  of 
Health  issue  pamphlets  on  the  various  communica- 
ble diseases,  disinfection,  etc.  All  these  bulletins 
and  pamphlets  are  issued  primarily  for  the  health 
offices  in  cities,  towns  and  villages  within  the  state 
of  publication,  but  in  many  cases  they  are  sent  to 
anyone  interested  outside  of  the  state.  Illinois  is  an 
exception  to  this.  The  office  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  in  all  cases  is  located  at  the  state  capital, 
the  secretary  usually  being  the   executive  officer. 

Michigan  has  undertaken  educational  work  on 
hygiene  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  state. 
A  law  was  passed  in  1895  requiring  every  teacher 
to  give  oral  and  blackboard  instruction  relating  to 
dangerous  communicable  diseases  and  other  health 
matters.  A  series  of  teachers'  bulletins  and  pam- 
phlets was  published.     Over  a  quarter  of  a  million 


220  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

of  some  of  these  have  been   sent  out  since  the  law 
was  passed. 

One  of  the  teachers'  bulletins  contains  an  inter- 
ing  estimate  on  the  money  value  of  public  health 
work.  The  writer,  from  statistics  compiled  before 
and  after  the  health  crusade  gives  figure's  that  seem 
to  show  about  2,000  lives  are  saved  annually  in  the 
state  of  Michigan  by  combating  smallpox,  scarlet 
fever,  typhoid  fever  and  consumption  alone.  Mod- 
estly reckoning  the  value  of  a  life  at  $1,000,  and  that 
of  a  child  at  half  price,  considerably  over  a  million 
dollars  is  saved  yearly,  or  more  than  the  total  yearly 
state  appropration. 

In  Vermont  a  law  was  passed  in  1905  requiring  the 
teachers  to  examine  school  children  for  defective 
eyesight  and  hearing.  Charts  and  directions  were 
prepared  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  at  a  cost  of 
only  $700.00.  Of  the  pupils  examined,  33  per  cent 
or  nearly  15,000.,  were  shown  to  be  defective,  the 
greater  proportion  having  defective  eyesight.  Surely 
it  was  worth  5  cents  each  to  find  out  these  defects 
so  that  they  might  be  rectified! 

Many  of  the  states  have  Laboratories  of  Hygiene 
and  manufacture  and  distribute  serums,  anti-tox- 
ines,  examine  specimens  for  tuberculosis,  diph- 
theria, etc.,  analyze  public  water  supplies,  and  give 
advice  for  sewerage  systems. 

Although  many  of  the  State  Boards  of  Health 
are  performing  their  work  admirably,  and  some  of 
their  bulletins  are  excellent,  there  seems  to  be  a 
great  deal  of  duplication  of  effort,  especially  in 
regard  to  printed  matter.     If  the  national  govern 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  221 

ment  could  be  induced  to  issue  a  series  of  bulletins 
on  the  preventable  diseases,  disinfection  and  other 
sanitary  matters,  for  free  distribution,  somewhat 
similar  to  the  Farmers'  bulletins,  a  tremendous  edu 
cational  work  for  hygiene  might  be  inaugurated. 
Only  a  few  thousand  dollars  would  be  required.  A 
recommendation  to  the  President  or  to  Congress 
from  the  Lake  Placid  Conference  might  help. 

SUGGESTION  FOR  THE  RESOLUTION  COMMITTEE 

Whereas,  Living  men  are  the 'most  valuable  possession 
of  the  state,  as  health  is  of  the  individual;  and, 

Whereas,  The  health  of  the  people  must  depend  ulti 
mately  on  the  education  of  the  individual;  and, 

Whereas,  Over  300,000  lives  are  lost  annually  in  the 
United  States,  and  a  vast  amount  of  illness  results 
from  contagious  and  infectious  diseases  now  known 
to  be  preventable ; 

Resolved,  That  Congress  be  petitioned  to  authorize 
the  Department  of  Public  Health  and  Marine  Hos- 
pital Service  to  issue  a  series  of  bulletins,  popu- 
lar in  character,  for  free  distribution  throughout 
the  United  States,  on  the  various  preventable  dis- 
eases, such  as  consumption,  pneumonia,  diph- 
theria, typhoid  fever,  scarlet  fever,  whooping 
cough,  measles,  etc.,  on  disinfection  and  on  other 
health  matters,  and  to  make  an  appropriation  for 
the  same. 


YOU  CAN  HELP  IN  THIS  WORK.  WRITE  TO 
YOUR  SENATORS  AND  CONGRESSMAN,  AND  GET  THE 
CLUBS  AND  ASSOCIATIONS  TO  WHICH  YOU  BELONG 
TO    SEND     A     PETITION     SOMETHING     LIKE    THE    ABOVE, 


PLEA   FOR   A   NATIONAL   DEPARTMENT  OF 
HEALTH 

By  Professor  J.  Pease  Norton 

In  the  next  twelve  months  750,000  persons  will 
die  in  the  United  States,  whose  lives  could  be  saved 
by  proper  effort.  Unless  the  effort  is  made,  the  lives 
of  750,000  will  be  sacrificed. 

Such  is  the  tenor  of  a  bulletin  sent  out  recently 
by  the  Yale  Department  of  Social  Science. 

The  bulletin  is  a  plea  for  the  establishment  of  a 
national  department  of  health  by  Prof.  J.  P.  Norton, 
head  of  the  department.     He  says: 

"There  are  four  great  wastes  to-day,  the  more 
lamentable  because  they  are  unnecessary.  They 
are,  preventable  death,  preventable  sickness,  pre- 
ventable conditions  of  low  physical  and  mental  effi- 
ciency, and  preventable  ignorance. 

"Of  the  people  living  to-day  over  8,000,000  will 
die  of  tuberculosis,  and  the  federal  government  does 
not  raise  a  hand  to  help  them. 

"The  Department  of  Agriculture  spends  $7,000 
000  on  plant  health  and  animal  health  every  year 
but,  with  the  exception  of  the  splendid  work  done 
by  Drs.  Wiley,  Atwater  and  Benedict,  Congress  does 
not  directly  appropriate  1  cent  for  promoting  the 
physical  well-being  of  babies.  Thousands  have  been 
expended  in  stamping  out  cholera  among  swine,  but 
not  $1  was  ever  voted  for  eradicating  pneumonia 
among  human  beings. 

"In  fact,  the  department  of  agriculture  has  ex- 
pended during  the  last  ten  years  over  $46,000,000 
But  not  a  wheel  of  the  official  machinery  at  Washing- 

222 


A   NATIONAL  DEPARTMENT  OF  HEALTH     223 

ton  was  ever  set  in  motion  for  the  alleviation  or  cure 
of  diseases  of  the  heart  or  kidneys,  which  will  carry 
off  over  6,000,000  of  our  entire  population.  Eight 
millions  will  perish  of  pneumonia,  and  the  entire 
event  is  accepted  by  the  American  people  with  a 
resignation  equal  to  that  of  the  Hindoo,  who,  in  the 
midst  of  indescribable  filth,  calmly  awaits  the  day 
of  the  cholera. 

"During  the  next  census  period  more  than  6,000,- 
000  infants  under  2  years  of  age  will  end  their  little 
spans  of  life,  while  mothers  sit  by  and  watch  in  utter 
helplessness.  And  yet  this  number  could  probably 
be  decreased  by  as  much  as  one-half.  But  nothing 
is  done. " 

Prof.  Norton  recommends  the  creation  of  a  national 
department  of  health,  having  as  its  head  a  secretary 
who  shall  be  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  Under  this 
department  there  should  be  created  fourteen  bureaus, 
as  follows:  Infant  hygiene,  education  and  schools, 
sanitation,  pure  food,  registration  of  physicians  and 
surgeons,  drugs,  druggists  and  drug  manufacturers, 
control  of  institutions  of  public  and  private  reliefs, 
correction,  detention,  and  residences,  organic  dis- 
eases, quarantine,  health  information,  immigration, 
labor  conditions,  research. 

Such  a  department  of  health,  Prof.  Norton  argues, 
might  not  only  save  750,000  lives  annually,  but  would 
add  greatly  to  the  productive  wealth  of  the  nation. 

Estimating  wages  at  $1  a  day,  Prof.  Norton  shows 
that  $1,444,000,000  are  lost  every  year  by  illness. 
A  national  department  of  health  could  save  $500,000,- 
000  of  the  amount  every  year. 


224  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

The    Human    Mechanism,    Hough    and  Sedgwick.      ($2.00, 

postage  1 8c.) 
Manual  of  Personal  Hygiene,  Walter  L.  Pyle.     ($1.50,  post- 
age 14c.) 
Personal  Hygiene,  Alfred  H.  Woodhull.    ($1.00,  postage  10c.) 
Nature  and  Health,  Edward  Curtis.       ($1.25,  postage,   12c.) 
The  Art  of  Right  Living,   Ellen  H.  Richards.      (50c,  post- 
age 6c.) 
A  Natural  Method  of  Physical  Training,  Chickley.      ($1.50, 

postage  ioc.) 
How  to  Get  Strong  and  How  to  Stay  So,  Blakie.      ($1.00, 

postage  12c.) 
Physiology  for  High  Schools,  Macy.      ($1.10,  postage  12c.) 
Story  of  the  Living  Machine,  Conn.      (35c,  postage  6c.) 
What  a  Young  Girl  Ought  to  Know,  Mrs.  Mary  Wood  Allen. 

($1.00,  postage  ioc.) 
What  a  Young  Woman  Ought  to  Know,  Mrs.  Mary  Wood 

Allen.      ($1.00,  postage  ioc.) 
What  a  Young  Wife  Ought  to  Know,  Mrs.   Emma    F.    A. 

Drake.     ($1.00,  postage  ioc.) 
Beauty  Through  Hygiene,  Mrs.  Emma  Walker.      ($1.00,  post- 
age ioc.) 
The  Four  Epochs  of  Woman's  Life,  Anna  Galbraith.      ($1.50, 

postage  14c) 
Care  of  the  Teeth,  Samuel  A.  Hopkins.      (75c.,  postage  6c.) 
School  Hygiene,  Charles  Porter.      ($1.25,  postage  ioc.) 
Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children,  Babcock.      Published 
by  Maltine  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.     Free.      (Postage  8c.) 

TECHNICAL    BOOKS. 

A  Text  of  Physiology,  Howell.      ($4.00,  postage  34c) 
The  Work  of  the  Digestive  Glands,  Pawlow.      ($2.00,  post- 
age 16c.) 
Recent  Advance  in  Physiology  and  Bio-chemistry,  Leonard 
Hill.     ($5.00,  postage  26c.) 

Note. —  Any  of  the  above  books  may  be  borrowed  by  mem- 
bers of  the  School  for  the  cost  of  postage.  Send  stamps  with 
request. 


SUPPLEMENTAL  PROGRAM  ARRANGED  FOR 
CLASSES   ON 

PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

MEETING   I     • 

(Study  pages  1-29) 
General  Principles 

Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.  Introduction.  ($1.75,  postage  18c.) 
The  Art  of  Right  Living,  Richards.     ($0.50,  postage  6c.) 

The  Human  Machine 

The  Human  Mechanism,  Hough  and  Sedgwick;  Chapters 
I-VII,  XV.     ($2.00;  postage  18c.) 

Physiology  for  High  Schools,  Macy;  Chapters  I-VI. 
($1.10,  postage  1 2C.) 

Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle;  Hygiene  of  the  Brain  and  Nerv- 
ous System.      ($1.75,  postage  18c.) 

Story  of  the  Living  Machine,  Conn.  "The  Cells."  ($0.35, 
postage  6c.) 

MEETING  II 

(Study  pages  29-45) 

The  Senses 

The  Human  Mechanism,  Chapter  XIV.     "The  Sense  Organs." 

Text  Book  of  Physiology,  Howell.  Chapter  XV,  "Cutane- 
ous and  Internal  Sensations;"  Chapter  XVI,  "Taste 
and  Smell."     ($4.00,  postage  34c.) 

The  Eyes 

Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.      "Hygiene  of  the  Eye." 

The  Human  Mechanism.      Chapter  XXII. 

Physiology  for  High  Schools,  Macy.      Chapter  VIII. 

Nature  and  Health,  Curtis.  Chapter  V.  ($1.25,  postage 
12c.) 

Text  Book  of  Physiology,  Howell.  Chapter's  XVII,  XVIII, 
XIX. 

225 


226  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Hearing 

Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.      "Hygiene  of  the  Ear." 

Nature  and  Health,  Curtis.     Chapter  VI. 

Text  Book  of  Physiology,  Howell.     Chapter  XX. 

Topic:  Testing  the  Eyesight  and  Hearing  of  School  Children. 
See  "Medical  Inspection  of  School  Children," 
Prize  Essay  on  Preventive  Medicine,  published  by 
Maltine  Company,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (Free  from 
the  publishers;  from  the  School,  8c.)  Also  Report 
of  Vermont  State  Board  of  Health  (4c,  from  the 
School). 
Sample  chart  for  testing  eyesight  with  directions  for 
use,  loaned  for  10c  postage. 

(Select  a  composite  set  of  answers  to  the  Test  Questions  on 
Part  I  and  send  to  the  School,  with  a  report  on  Meet- 
ings I  and  II.) 

MEETING   III 

(Study  pages  45"56) 
Digestion  of  Food 

The  Human  Mechanism.     Chapter  VIII  and  pages  44-52. 
Text    Book    of     Physiology,    Howell.      Chapter    VII     and 

"Enzimes  and  their  Action,"  pages,  657-665. 
Work  of  the   Digestive    Glands,   Pawlow.      "The    Psychic 

Juices."     ($2.00,  postage  16c.) 
Personal      Hygiene,    Pyle.      "Hygiene     of     the     Digestive 

Apparatus." 
Food  and  Dietetics,  Hutcherson.     Chapter  XXIII.      ($3.00 

postage  26c.) 

The  Blood  and  Circulation 

The  Human  Mechanism.     Chapter  IX. 
Text  Book  of  Physiology.     Chapters  XXII,  XXIV. 
Physiology  for  High  Schools.     Chapter  XII. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Woodhull.     Chapter  IV. 


PROGRAM  227 

Respiration 

The  Human  Mechanism.      Chapter  X. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Woodhull.      Chapter  III. 
Life  and  Health.     Chapter  I. 

MEETING  IV 

(vStudy  pages  54-104) 
Nutrition 

The  Human  Mechanism.      Chapter  XIII. 
Text  Book  of  Physiology.     Chapters  XLVII,  XLVIII. 
See  article   in  Food  and  Dietetics,  on  "Proteid  Metabolism," 

Folin;    and   article  in  American    Journal    of    Physiology 

January  1905.     (From  the  School,  4c.) 
Recent    Advances   in    Physiology  and    Bio-chemistry,    Hill. 

Chapters  X,  XI,  XII,  XIII.      ($5.25,  postage  28c.) 
Heat  Product  and  Regulation 
The  Human  Mechanism.     Chapter  XII. 
Text  Book  of  Physiology.      Chapter  LI. 
Elimination 
The  Human  Mechanism.      Chapter  XI. 

(Select  and  send  answers  to  the  Test  Questions  on  Part  II 
and  report  on  Meetings  III  and  IV.) 

MEETING  V 

(Study  pages  105-136) 
Hygiene  of  the  Nervous  System 
The  Human  Mechanism.      Chapter  XVIII. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.     Pages  275-314. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Woodhull.     Pages  47-51. 


228  PERSONAL  HYGIENE 

Hygiene  of  Feeding 

v^ee  Food  and  Dietetics,  Norton.    Volume  VI  of  the  "Library." 
The  Human  Mechanism.     Chapters  XIX,  XX. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.     Pages  26-48 
Nature  and  Health.     Chapters  II,  III,  IV. 
Food    and     Dietetics,    Hutcherson.       Chapters    I,    II,    III, 
XXVII,  XXVIII. 

MEETING  VI 

(Study  pages  137-187)     . 
Hygiene  of  the  Skin  and  Appendages 

The    Human    Mechanism.     Chapter    XXI,    Colds;     Chapter 

XXIV,  Bathing. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.     Pages  52-67;  82-92. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Woodhull.     Pages  124-133. 
Nature  and  Health.      Pages  204-210. 
Clothing 
The  Human  Mechanism.    Chapter  XXV  and  XXIII,  Hygiene 

of  the  Feet. 
Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.     Pages  72-81. 
Nature  and  Health.      Pages  191-203. 

Physical  Exercise 

The  Human  Mechanism.     Chapter  XVII. 

Personal  Hygiene,  Pyle.     Pages  315-348. 

Nature  and  Health.     Pages  250-273. 

How  to  Get  Strong  and   How  to  Stay  So,  Blakie.     ($1.00, 

postage  12c.) 
A  Natural  Method  of  Physical  Training,  Checkley.     ($1,50, 

postage  8c.) 
(Send   answers   to    the   Test   Questions  on  Part  III,  with  a 

report  of  the  last  two  meetings.) 


INDEX 


Absorption,  59,  62,  63,  g>£ 
Abuse  of  drugs,  202 
Adenoids,  78  ' 
^Esophagus,  54 
Air,  impure,  80 
Alcohol,  136 
Amoeba,  5 

Amount  of  sleep,  108 
Amylopsin,  61 
Anabolism,  81 
Anaemia,  74 
Appetite,  123 

gastric  juices,  57 
Arteries,  68 
Astigmatism,  35 
Auditory  nerves,  40 
Automatic  acts,  22 
Bacteria,  in  digestion,  64 
Balanced  ration,  131 
Baths,  137 
Bedding,  no 
Beds,  109 
Bibliography,  224 
Bicycling,  168 
Bile,  the,  61 
Bladder,  100 
Blood,  66 

circulation  of,  68 

distribution  of,  72 

plates,  67 

rate  of  flow,  70 
Body,  structure  of,  12 
Boils,  147 
Bones,  14 
Brain,  the,  20 
Breathing,  78 

deep,  73,  79 
Brushing  the  hair,  142 
Bunions,  159 
Capillaries,  68 
Carbon  dioxide,  79 


Care  of  colds,  151 

of  the  complexion,  145 

of  the  hair,  141 

of  the  teeth,  114 
.  Caries,  117 
Cartilage,  14,  28 
Catalysis,  52 
Cataract,  38 
Catarrh,  41,  149 
Cells,  7 

air,  76 
Children's  diet,  131 
Chittenden's  experiments,  90 
Circulation,  68 
Cleaning  the  teeth,  118 
Clothing,  153 
Cocoa,  135 
Coffee,  135 

Cold-blooded  animals,  94 
Colds,  149 
Colon,  63 
Color  blindness,  36 

of  clothing,  155 
Complexion,  27 

care  of,  145 
Conductivity  of  cloths,  153 
Connective  tissue,  28 
Constipation,  99 
Constitution,  3 
Cooking,  130 
Corns,  159 
Corpuscles,  66 
Corsets,  156 
Dancing,  170 
Dandruff,  142 
Deafness,  43 
Decay  of  the  teeth,  117 
Deep  breathing,  73,  79 
Dermis,  24 
Diaphragm,  the,  78 
Diet  in  obesity    128 
229 


230 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Digestion  in  small  intestine,  60 

in  stomach,  59 

salivary,  52 
Digestive  peculiarities,  131 
Diseases,  classes  of,  203 

preventable,  3 
Drink,  water  as,  134 
Drugs,  action  of,  206 

for  a  cold,  152 

use  and  abuse  of,  202 
Duodenum,  60 
Ear,  the,  39 

foreign  bodies  in,  42 

wax,  42 
Earache,  42 
Eating,  59,  121 
Elimination,  98 

of  carbon,  85 

of  hydrogen,  85 

of  nitrogen,  84 

of  water,  10 1 
Energy,  48 

outgo  of,  49 

reserve,  87 
Enzymes,  52 
Epidermis,  24 
Epiglottis,  54 
Ethics  of  health,  191 
Eustachian  tube,  41 
Evolution  of  the  body,  9 
Exercise,  muscular,  161 
Exercising  the  stomach,  130 
Eyes,  care  of,  36 
Face  powders,  147 
Fat,  digestion  of,  56,  61 

increasing,  128 

reducing,  127 
Fats,  use  of,  86 
Fatigue,  107 
Feet,  care  of,  158 
Ferments,  52,  55,  60 
Fibres,  muscle,  17 
Fillings  for  the  teeth,  120 
Flat  foot,  159 
Fletcherizing,  54 


Folin's  theory,  89 
Food,  85,  124 

required,  124 

values,  126 

wastes,  98 
Fried  food,  130 
Fundus,  55 
Ganglia,  23 
Gastric  juices,  55 
Glands,  ductless,  68 

salivary,  5 1 

sebaceous,  26 

sweat,  25 
Glycogen,  62 
Golf,  169 
Gray  hair,  144 
Gymnastics,  170 
Habit,  physiology  of    112 
Hair,  141 

care  of,  141 

tonics,  144 
Hands,  care  of,  148 
Health,  1 

a  duty,  191 

factors  in,  11 

protection  of,  198 
Hearing,  sense  of,  39 
Heart,  the,  69 
Heat  losses  of  the  body,  96 

regulation,  96 

stroke,  129 
Hemoglobulen,  66 
Heredity,  tendency  in,  193 
Home  gymnastics,  174 
Hot  weather,  food  in,  129 
Housework  as  exercise,  166 
How  much  to  eat,  123 
Humidity,  effect  of,  97 
Hydrochloric  acid,  55 
Hygiene,  1,  105 

of  feeding,  114 

of  the  nervous  system,  106 

of  the  skin,  137 
Hygienic  exercise,  165 
Ideals  of  living,  200 


INDEX 


231 


Inherited  characteristics,  192 
Insomnia,  no 
Instinct  versus  reason,  195 
Intemperance,  3 
Intestine,  large,  63 

small,  59 
Intestinal  ferments,  60 

secretions,  61 
Katabolism,  81 
Kidneys,  secretion  of,  100 
Lacteals,  62 
Large  intestine,  63 
Liebig's  theory,  84 
Leucocytes,  66 
Life,  nature  of,  5 
Lipase,  61 
Liver,  the,  62 
Living,  irrational,  197 
Lunches,  122 
Lungs,  the,  78 
Lymph,  69 
Lymphatics,  69 
Lymphocytes,  66 
Massage  of  the  face,  146 

of  the  scalp,  143 
Mastication,  51 
Meals,  time  for,  121 
Meat  eating,  132 
Mechanical  efficiency  of  the  body, 

49 
Medicines,  patent,  214 
Metabolism,  81 
Motor  nerves,  20 
Mucin,  54 

Mucous  membrane,  24 
Muscles,  15 
Muscular  exercise,  161 

sense,  3 1 

tone,  95 
Xaps,  109 
Nasopharynx,  76 
National    department    of    health, 

plea  for,  222 
Xerve  cell,  19 

centers,  20 


Nerves,  motor,  20 

sensory,  20 
Nervous  system,  19 

hygiene  of,  106 

sympathetic,  23 

voluntary,  21 

work  of,  50 
Nitrogen,  elimination  of,  84 
Nutrients,  81 

use  by  cells,  86 
Nutrition,  81 

Nutritive  value  of  food,  125 
Organs,  inter-relation  of,  8 
Ossification,  centers  of,  14 
Over  eating,  127 
Oxidation,  92 

in  the  body,  86 
Oxygen,  75,  79 

use  of,  in  nutrition,  75 
Oxy-hemoglobulen,  79 
Pancreas,  60 
Pancreatic  juice,  60 
Patent  medicines,  214 
Pawlow's  experiments,  57 
Pepsin,  55 
Periosteum,  14 
Personal  limitations,  3 
Perspiration,  25,  96 

and  clothing,  154 
Physical  exercise,  161 
Pigment,  27 
Pimples,  147 
Plasma,  66 
Plexuses,  23 
Portal  vein,. 63 
Posterity,  duty  to,  196 
Prevention  of  colds,  140 
Proportion  of  nutrients,  131 
Proteid,  amount  of,  132 

decomposition,  98 

digestion  of,  55,  60 

formation  in  the  blood,  89 
Proteids,  use  of,  83,  88,  93 
Psychic  juices,  57 
Ptyalin,  51,  53 


232 


PERSONAL  HYGIENE 


Public  health  in  the  U.  S.,  216 

Pylorus,  54 

Rectum,  63 

Recreation,  out-of-doors,  167 

Reflex  acts,  22 

Rennin,  55 

Reserve  power,  162 

Respiration,  75 

Rest,  109 

Right  living,  4,  194 

Rubbers,  160 

Saliva,  51 

secretion  of,  53 
Salivary  digestion,  52 
Salt-water  bathing,  140 
Salts  in  nutrition,  82 
Sebaceous  glands,  26 
Secretions,  intestinal,  61 
Selfishness,  results  of,  197 
Sense  organs,  29 

muscular,  31 

of  hearing,  39 

of  pain,  31 

of  sight,  33 

of  smell,  31 

of  taste,  32 

tactile,  30 

temperature,  31 
Shampooing,  143 
Shoes,  158 
Sigmoid  flexture,  63 
Sight,  33 
Skin,  the,  24 
Sleep,  107 
Sleeping-room,  109 
Sleeplessness,  no 
Small  intestine,  59 

movements  of,  59 
Standard  diets,  124 
Starch,  digestion  of,  51,  61 
State  boards  of  health,  218 
Stimulating  baths,  139 
Stomach,  54 

movements  of,  56 


Structure  of  the  body,  1 2 
Summer  clothing,  155 

diet,  129 
Sun  baths,  129 

stroke,  129 
Sweat,  25,  96 
Swimming,  168 

Sympathetic  nervous  system,   23 
Tactile  senses,  30 
Taste  sensations,  32 
Tea,  135 
Tears,  38 

Teeth,  care  of,  114 
Temperature,  body,  94 

ideal,  97 

regulation,  25,  94 

sense,  31 
Tendons,  17 
Tennis,  169 
Trypsin,  60 

Unity  of  body,  mind  and  soul,  191 
Urea,  10 1 
Ureters,  100 
Uric  acid,  91,  10 1 
Use  of  drugs,  202 
Vegetarianism,  133 
Veins,  68 
Ventilation,  80 
Villi,  62 

Vision,  defects  of,  34 
Vitality  of  individuals,  10 
Voit's  theory,  88 
Voluntary  nervous  system,  21 
Walking  as  exercise,  167 
Wastes,  food,  98 

in  the  blood,  99 
Water,  elimination  of,  10 1 
What  to  eat,  130 
White  corpuscles,  66 
Winter  clothing,  155 

diet,  129 

sports,  170 
Worry,  107 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  due  on  the  date  indicated  below,  or  at  the 
expiration  of  a  definite  period  after  the  date  of  borrowing, 
as  provided  by  the  rules  of  the  Library  or  by  special  ar- 
rangement with  the  Librarian  in  charge. 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

DATE  BORROWED 

DATE  DUE 

C28(238)M100 

- 

IA7?6 

Le   Bosquet 


L4G 


